Chapter 6: Engine Design

BAE 599 - Lecture 6

Engine Design Process
Load Factor
Displacement
Bore/Stroke Ratio
Load Factor
Load factor is the ratio of average
power output to maximum power
output.
Gasoline engines typically are
designed with a load factor of 0.3
while diesel engines are designed
with load factors close to 1.0.
Selection of Displacement
After rated speed and power is
specified, the next step is to select
the displacement.
Typical p
bme
pressures range from
700 to 900 kPa are reasonable.

Bore/Stroke Ratios
Typical bore/stroke ratios range
from 0.84 to 0.96.
Extreme values range from 0.79 to
1.30.
Lower bore/stroke ratios facilitate
higher compression ratios more
air flow supports higher power
output.
Engine Timing and Firing Order
Engine cylinders are numbered from
front to back on in-line engines.
For V engines, the cylinders are
numbered front to back on the left
then right banks.
Alternate numbering scheme for V
engines is the order (front to back)
in which pistons are connected to
the crank.
Direction of Rotation
Standard direction of crankshaft
rotation is clockwise when the crank
is viewed from the front of the
engine.

Fig. 6.1: Two-Cylinder Firing Order
Special slide for Brandon!!!!
Fig. 6.1: Four-Cylinder Firing Order
Fig. 6.1: Six-Cylinder Firing Order
Fig. 6.1: Eight-Cylinder (V) Firing Order
Fig. 6.3: Valve Timing
Engine Balance
Rotating Masses
Reciprocating Masses
Rotational Speed Fluctuations
Crankshaft Twist
Piston Crank Dynamics
The piston position as a function of crank
angle,




where S is the piston position from HDC,
R is the crank throw, and L is the
connecting rod length.
( )
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
2
1
2
sin 1 1 cos 1 u u
L
R
L R S
Fig. 6.4: Crankshaft with Counterweights
Piston Crank Dynamics
The previous equation can be simplified
to,




using a binomial series expansion.
|
.
|

\
|
+ = u u 2 sin
2
cos 1
L
R
R S
Piston Crank Dynamics
Differentiating the previous equation,
velocity becomes,



where
|
.
|

\
|
+ = u u e 2 sin
2
sin
L
R
R v
dt
d
dt
dS
v
u
e =
=
Piston Crank Dynamics
Differentiating the previous equation,
acceleration becomes,



where a is acceleration.
|
.
|

\
|
+ = u u e 2 cos cos
2
L
R
R a
Piston Inertial Force
Using Newtons Law and the previous
equation,



where m is piston/connecting rod mass,
and F is the force generated when
accelerating this mass.
|
.
|

\
|
+ = u u e 2 cos cos
2
L
R
mR F
Fig. 6.5: Piston-Crankshaft Dynamics
Effective Mass of Connecting Rod
The portion of the connecting rod mass
added to the piston mass is,






where b and L are specified in Fig. 6.5.
c c
m
L
b
m =
1
c c
m
L
b L
m

=
2
Reciprocating Unbalance in Single-
Cylinder Engines
The oscillating force in the x-direction
(vertical) becomes,




where m
p
is the mass of the piston, m
c1

and m
c2
are masses of the connecting rod,
and m
e
is the mass of the crank pin.
( ) ( ) ( ) u e u u e cos 2 cos cos
2
2
2
1
R m m
L
R
R m m F
c e c p x
+ +
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
Effective Mass of Crankpin
The effective mass of the crankpin is determined
as,





where m
cp
is the mass of the crankpin, m
ca
is the
mass of the material supporting the crankpin,

m
cb

is the mass of the counterweight opposite the
crankpin, R is the crankpin radius (
1
/
2
the stroke),
and R
a
and R
b
are the radii to the respective
crankshaft masses.
R
R m R m R m
m
b cb a ca cp
e
2 2 +
=
Reciprocating Unbalance in Single-
Cylinder Engines
The oscillating force in the y-direction
(horizontal) becomes,




( ) ( ) u e sin
2
2
R m m F
c e y
+ =
Primary and Secondary Shaking Forces
The oscillating forces (both x and y
directions) have components at two
frequencies.
The primary shaking force occurs at
engine speed.
The secondary shaking force occurs at
twice the frequency of engine speed.
Counterweights are sized to cancel half of
the vertical primary shaking force, larger
masses would increase the lateral
primary shaking force to an unacceptable
level.

Reciprocating Unbalance in Multi-
Cylinder Engines
The F
x
forces are added together for
multi-cylinder engines proper
phase angle must be included.
Lanchester Balancers are often
used in 4-cylinder engines to cancle
the secondary shaking force (used
as the tractor frame) to protect the
operator from vibration
Table 6.1: Amplitude of Shaking Forces
Fig. 6.6: Lanchester Balancer
Inertial Couples
Inertial couples (Table 6.1) tend to make
the engine rock about the y-axis
(coinciding with the centerline of the
crankshaft).
Three-cylinder engines have provisions
for balancing half of the primary couple
by use of a counterweighted front pulley.
Unfortunately, the counterweighted pulley
generates a new yawing couple about the
z-axis.

Instantaneous Torque and Flywheels
Instantaneous torque is a product of Q
t

and R. The end result is summarized as,

|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
u
u
2
2
2
sin
cos
1
R
L
R F T
p
Fig. 6.5: Piston-Crankshaft Dynamics
Fig. 6.7: Instantaneous Torque
Radial Force at Crankshaft
If the forces at the top of the piston is
known (F
p
), then the radial force (Q
r)
at
the crankshaft becomes,
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
u
u
u
2
2
2
2
sin 1
sin
cos
L
R
L
R
F Q
p
r
Flywheel Design
Instantaneous torque is less than average
torque (T
ave
) for most of the cycle.
Flywheel Design
Average output torque is equal to the
load torque on the engine.
When the average torque drops below
load torque, the engine stalls!
When the instantaneous torque is greater
than load torque, the flywheel accelerates
and stores energy.
When the instantaneous torque is less
than load torque, the flywheel gives up
kinetic energy.


Fig. 6.8: Instantaneous Toque for 4
and 6 Cylinder Engines

Required Mass Moment of Inertia
Mass moment of inertia can be estimated
as,




where AE is the kinetic energy transfer
and k is the speed variation coefficient.
2 2
900
e
f
N
Ek
I
t
A
=
Required Mass Moment of Inertia
The kinetic energy transfer can be
estimated as,



where W is the indicated work per
revolution and l is a ratio from Table 6.2.
W E = A
Table 6.2: Approximate Flywheel Constants
Required Mass Moment of Inertia
The speed variation is obtained from the
following relationship,



where p is the percent of allowable speed
variation.
p
k
50
=
Required Mass Moment of Inertia
Please recall the indicated work can be
estimated as,
m e
b
e N
P
W
000 , 60
=
Vibration Dampeners
Instantaneous torques tend to twist the
crankshaft.
Higher harmonics from these torque
fluctuations can approach the natural
frequency of the crankshaft.
More problematic with long crankshafts
(in-line 6 cylinder engines).
Problem is corrected by mounting a small
flywheel to the front of the crankshaft
connection is flexible.
Fig. 6.9: Vibration Dampeners
Homework Set No. 5
Do the even problems at the end of
Chapter 6 for next Tuesday.
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