INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY

All fields of study started as attempts to answer questions about ones environment, ones relation to it, and ones own nature.

THEOLOGIAN
Sought to explain our relationship with God Prescribes actions in accordance with Gods will

SCIENTIST
Tried to explain our physical environment and our physical being

What is Sociology?

Sociology
Science of society and the social interactions taking place within it. Concerned with social interaction ---- acts, social relationships, social organizations, social structures, and social processes. Gathers social facts: include the recurrent and repetitive forms of behaviour and social institutions that make up the order. Studies changes which takes place within it. Conclusions: in the form of generalization The findings debunk some common sense notions and myths EMPHASIS: social behaviour of the individual within the context of his or her social group or society. Broad discipline, encompassing the various facets of human life Currently stresses a global perspective to provide a meaningful basis of comparison among nations seek cross-national comparison ---- formulates general theories

Duties of Sociologists
Analyses the patterns and processes of social relations Formulate theories and principles about human behaviour as shaped by group life and how, in turn, group life is affected by individuals.

SIGNIFICANCE
Obtain factual information about our society Understand our society more objectively Application of scientific methodology Understand our society and analyse the social factors causing problems and, possibly, some modes of thinking one has to follow. Reflect upon human observations made by others, make commentaries about them, and gain insights into whatever social phenomenon is observed (Shoemaker, 1998:23) Results of sociological investigation are useful to community leaders, entrepreneurs and government officials in maintaining social order and plotting courses of action for the future of a society Enhances broad-mindedness and tolerance of the ways of other people ------ discard our prejudices and become more understanding of the customs of other people; realize that the truth is relative, and good and bad behaviour depends upon the norms of conduct of the society where it takes place. Development of a liberal-minded individual imbued with a sense of identity and appreciative of his or her cultural heritage.

SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION
c. Wright Mills
Quality of mind a capacity to understand the interplay of individual and society, biography and history, of the self and of the world Ability to see the relation between our personal life and the social world we live in Enables us to see things beyond our established ways of acting and behaving, and gain a better grasp of the situation by relating oneself to the bigger society

Relationship of Sociology to the Other Social Sciences

ANTHROPOLOGY
Study of humanity and the similarities and diversity of cultures Includes study of the biological, social and cultural development of humankind Cultural and social anthropologists study tribes, subcultures, or society as a whole, while immersing in the community that they are studying.

PSYCHOLOGY
Interested in a wide range of mental, psychological, and behavioral processes i.e. learning, human and personality development, perception, emotion, personality disorders and mental illness. Focus: individual behavior Social Psychology: integrates sociology and psychology with interactions among individuals and groups

POLITICAL SCIENCE
History and theory of government Political processes and power struggle; changes from previous elections and nature of voters and political parties Political scientists and sociologists ---- interested in the social interactions that take place within the political institution and other social institutions.

HISTORY
Documents the chronology of significant past events of human beings and the facts surrounding them Studies important persons, social institutions or ideas that may have influenced the outcome of events in explaining the past It uses sociological approach in searching for the underlying forces that influence human behavior

ECONOMICS
Concerned with human activities related to the production, consumption and distribution of goods, services, and wealth within societies as well as commercial exchange Uses mathematical methods to predict changes in economic indicators --reflections of individual and group behavior as they affect population movements

Development of Sociology

In Europe
Sociology gradually developed in W. Europe as a response to the vast social, cultural, economic and political changes in the 18th & 19th c. --INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION French Revolution occurred resulting in numerous social problems Attempts to understand the social forces, their causes and solutions were initiated by using scientific approaches

Forerunners of Sociology
AUGUSTE COMTE (1798-1857)
French philosopher Coined the term sociology --- derived from the Latin socius meaning social or being with others and Greek logos meaning study/science Father of Sociology Summarized the stages of development of all knowledge about humanity Advocated the use of positivism or the empirical method for studying and understanding of society --- laws on social behavior could be formulated Positivism: study of phenomenon by rigid observation & experiments

Forerunners of Sociology
AUGUSTE COMTE (1798-1857)
Progressive development of science was analyzed in the 3 stages of humanity:
1. 2. 3. Theological/fictitious Metaphysical/abstract Scientific/positive

Each mental stage has an accompanying type of social organization and political dominance Sociology as the means by which a more rational and just society could be achieved.

Forerunners of Sociology
KARL MARX (1818-1883)
German economist and philosopher Wrote Communist Manifesto in 1847 together with Friedrich Engels Common feature: intense anger over the misery of the lower classes caused by the existing industrial order History as a continuous struggle between conflicting ideas and forces & most important change is economic Social Classes:
1. 2. 3. 4.

Economic inequality is the result of class struggles between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat (industrial workers)
Moneyed Capitalists Proprietors of small businesses Factory workers Laborers

Forerunners of Sociology
KARL MARX (1818-1883)
Predicted that there would be a constant struggle between the capitalist class and the working class
Laborers/ working class represents the forces of production: ruled/subordinates Bourgeoisie exploit the laborers & enjoy the economic surplus

All aspects of society are economically conditioned and controlled by the capitalists Political revolutions are significant in the evolution of society and is the only means to attain the improvement of social conditions His prediction has not come true.
Number of social classes continue to flourish He did not realize the capacity of capitalism to regulate itself and for the government to regulate competition in order to avoid exploitation

Forerunners of Sociology
EMILE DURKHEIM (1858-1977)
First French academic sociologist Among the famous books:
1. 2. 3. 4. The Division of Labor in Society The Rules of Sociological Method Suicide Elementary Forms of Religious Life

social phenomena as social facts that have distinctive social characteristics and determinants Social facts: every way of acting, fixed or not, capable of exercising on the individual an external constraint
Example:
Customs, laws & general behavior which people accept without question

Forerunners of Sociology
EMILE DURKHEIM (1858-1977)
Individuals are more the products rather than the creators of society Pointed out that rapid social change and specialized division of labor produce strains in society RESULT: breakdown of the traditional social organization, values and authority ---normlessness and loss of social control called anomie In his book, Suicide --- showed the relationship between the individual and the society when the values of life become precarious Argued that while suicide is a solitary act, it can be understood only by analyzing society

Forerunners of Sociology
MAX WEBER (1864-1920)
German economist Foresaw the development of several social classes in society & examined the consequences of the peoples relationship to economic institutions Power & Prestige: major causes of inequality Understanding human action by examining the subjective meaning that people attach to their own behavior and the behavior of others In studying social class:
Subjective perception of power, wealth, ownership and social prestige Objective aspects of these factors

In US
ROBERT PARK pioneered in the multidisciplinary approach and social ecology

In US
JANE ADAMS made studies in the impoverished areas in Chicago

In US
Charles Horton Cooley, George Herbert Mead, & W.I. Thomas: formulated theories emphasizing the importance of social interaction in the development of human thought and action ---- symbolic interaction perspective.

In US
WILLIAM GRAHAM SUMMER Collected volumes of data on the customs and moral laws of different societies State ways cannot change folkways overnight --- social change comes only in its own good times Morality cannot be legislated

In US
ROBERT K. MERTON Concerned with linking general theory to empirical testing and developing concepts of social structure ----- functions, selffulfilling prophecies, deviance and bureaucracies.

In US
Rapid growth of sociology in US accelerated the shift from social philosophy to social science ---- later sociology as a distinct discipline of the social sciences After world wars:
Researches were made to develop a general theory of action that analyzed social phenomena ranging from individual behavior to the larger structure of society TALCOTT-PARSONS:
o sociology should be concerned with large-scale phenomena i.e. society o Evolution of human society and the emergence of large-scale, societal institutions o 4 features of society: 1. Religion 2. Communication 3. Social organization (KINSHIP) 4. Technology

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IN SOCIOLOGY

Served as guidelines to analyze and test theories about human behavior and society Macro level: looks at the broad, large picture i.e. social institutions & social organizations 1. Structural-Functional Perspective 2. Conflict Perspective

Micro level: centered on small groups of individuals interacting with one another 1. Symbolic-Interaction Perspective

STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONALISM PERSPECTIVE
Concept: Society as a Biological structure i.e. human body

Advocates: Durkheim, Weber, Cooley, Thomas & Pareto, Parsons, Merton, RadcliffeBrown, Marion Levy and Robert Bales A.k.a. Social System Theory, Equilibrium Theory or Functionalism

Composed of various organs, each with a unique function but interdependent with one another Social System has several parts: families, schools, church, etc.

Explains society in terms of structure and functions

Social structure: independent network of statuses and roles Status: either ascribed by birth (sex, age, race) or achieved (degree, corporate/social positions, professions) ---- interrelated sets of which are social systems Associated with each status ---- set of expectations: general idea of appropriate behavior ---------- sometimes this is not congruent to the actual performance Role performance & behavior: learned by SOCIALIZATION PROCESS

STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONALISM PERSPECTIVE
Parsons:
Survival of societies: must able to provide for the needs of the members also, various institutions must work together to preserve the system over time

Merton:
Identified the functions of a social system as what the system does and the outcomes that arise from a certain type of structure Social system can have both: 1. Manifest functions intended or recognized 2. Latent functions unintended or unrecognizable Example: Parents functions & Fiesta Not all functions of a social system ensure its equilibrium ---- some may lead to imbalance & disintegration of the system (DYSFUNCTION) ex. Child abuse, spouse beating.

Social Structures exist in society in order to carry out certain functions Focus on order & stability: neglect of change

CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE
Marx, Weber, Wright Mills, Lewis, Coser and Ralph Dahrendorf -----society can be best studied through conflict and power struggle Marx:
History: series of class struggles b/w bourgeoisie & workers; dominant & dominated; powerful & powerless Structure of society: determined by economic organization & ownership of property ----personal beliefs, cultural values, religious dogmas, class hierarchy, etc. are reflected Inequalities in econ. System ---- revolutionary class conflict when the exploited class realize their inferior status and rebel against the dominant property owners and employers

CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE
Weber:
economic dimension: source of inequality --- leads to conflict Technological advancement (new methods of mining, textile, weaving, communication) --INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ------ rural areas became urbanized ----- new social classes arose. Capitalist class: decide where, when, and how work will be done; workers: limited choices

Dahrendorf:
Conflict applies to all social life resulting from nature of authority Key to conflict: not in econ. Relations, but the relations b/w the superior and the subordinates

CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE
Neo-Marxist Approach
struggle between social classes in inevitable and is the primary source of change

Racial-ethnic inequalities
Feminist view
Gender is an element of social conflict --- change is necessary to achieve their human potential Functionalist vs. Conflict Perspective o Presents a contrasting view: society is balanced, consensual, and integrated & social processes continually maintain harmony o Conflict: society as being in a state of competition, conflict, constraint, and change ----struggle for improvement, neglecting its less conflictive and more integrative facets.

SYMBOLIC INTERACTION PERSPECTIVE

Mead, Thomas, Blumer, Cooley Involves individuals in society
o Their definitions/ perceptions of situations o Meanings o Roles o Interaction patterns Core: how society affects individuals & vice-versa Society is reflected in every socialized individual External forms and structures are also reflected through the social interaction occurring among individuals at the symbolic level Language: consists of symbols representing physical objects & abstract ideas ---communication

SYMBOLIC INTERACTION PERSPECTIVE

Focus: communicative aspect or language
enables individuals to develop personal identity within a society w/ members having scripted statuses and roles human behavior is influenced by the definitions and meanings people develop and maintain through the medium of language

Thomas:
definition of the situation: act or behavior being examined and deliberated one has to pay attention to the subjective meanings in order to understand human activity

SYMBOLIC INTERACTION PERSPECTIVE

Mead
humans are set apart from animals --- ability to use language & to create and acquire social institutions, societies and cultures Social interaction: enables individuals to acquire the beliefs, values, and language of the society to which they belong Social self: viewing oneself/ conception of oneself in relation to other individuals selves. Development of the self depends on individuals ability to interpret the behavior of others in the community ---- & which behavior is appropriate to particular situations GENERALIZED OTHERS: unity of self to the individual
Through the attitude of the generalized others, individuals are able to see themselves as others do and to understand the attitude of others toward the various aspects of social life

SYMBOLIC INTERACTION PERSPECTIVE

Cooley:
Looking Glass Self: set of ideas an individual has about him/herself---- derived from the social interaction with others
We see ourselves through our imagination of the judgment of other people toward us. 3 Elements: 1. Imagination of how we appear to other persons 2. Imagination of the judgment of that appearance 3. Sort of self-feeling i.e. pride or mortification This means: The self is seen through the eyes of other people and how they evaluate our appearance

In the Philippines
Introduced during the latter part of the Spanish regime American Era:
Fused anthropology and sociology using western models to guide the colonial administrators and settlers ---- attributed to: 1. Persistence of traditionalism 2. Lack of strong belief that science can be a strong force in studying and rendering social realities Filipino social scientists CONRADO BENITEZ and LUIS RIVERA taught sociology using materials that were western in orientation. 1950s: increased number of educational exchange program grantees, establishment of social science research centers and councils, growing freq. of conferences & publication of journals

In the Philippines
Public and Private agencies became aware of the significance of social facts in the decision-making process The scope of Phil. Sociology expanded with the increasing industrialization, urbanization and modernization and their corresponding social problems
Researches: focused on rural and urban communities, poverty, agrarian reform & population Contemporary..
Sociologys greatest challenge lies in the creative translation of practical problems into researchable ones which will yield answers/ solutions to practical questions. Gelia T. Castillo Trends in sociology: indigenization of concepts, methods, and theories ----- development of methods and techniques suited to the local conditions

In the Philippines
RANDOLF DAVID, prominent Filipino sociologist
Growing and unstoppable domination of the national economy by transnational corp Impossibility of repaying national indebtedness Increasing pauperism of the rural masses Total degradation of the marginalized urban workers Intensification of political coercion as the economy increasingly fails to provide the needs of the poor Intensifying participation of the military in national life More aggressive intervention by US in national affairs --- secure & protect investments

In the Philippines
ISSUE:
How to close the gap between the research they produce and utilization of these by policy-makers and program managers ----- under-utilization/nonutilization of social science research: POOR LINKAGE b/w the RESEARCH and the PEOPLE AT THE GRASSROOTS, POPULAR ORGANIZATIONS & GOV. AGENCIES.

THE QUESTION OF A VALUE-FREE SOCIOLOGY

VALUE-FREE SOCIOLOGY
POSITIVIST STANCE:
Only the use of the scientific method can provide the truth in its research Sociologists must be neutral, objective and not take sides or make personal judgments Foremost task: to discover and organize knowledge about human behavior Essential in the evaluation of any scientific work is not so much on the perspective but the degree to which the work has been carried out Must have clear definitions and a systematic collection of the material --RELIABILTY AND VALIDITY of the observation

VALUE-FREE SOCIOLOGY
ACTIVIST STANCE:
It is impossible to be value-free in contemporary society To be value-free is to support the status quo States that sociologists technical knowledge puts them at a certain advantage in proposing and advocating reforms Sociologist: should take the initiative and active leadership in espousing the improvements of conditions for humankind and the creation of a good society They rally in the struggle against social injustice, inequality and any sort of abuse MAIN ROLE: INNOVATOR in solving problems

VALUE-FREE SOCIOLOGY
Sociological research cannot be value-free Reasons: 1. Difficult for one to objectively study both sides --- it will inevitably lead to bias 2. Social scientists cannot avoid choices of values in their research (Wright Mills) 3. Political and moral concerns are central to sociology --- it is impossible to achieve value freedom

The Logic & Method Of Sociological Inquiry and Research

SOCIOLOGICAL INQUIRY
Primarily intended to find answers to questions on the observable social world and social actions Social Actions: ways in which humans interact with other in social units (i.e. social institutions --- of which they are the primary concern) goes beyond the study of face-to-face contact Systematic analysis of the motivation and behavior of individuals within groups Concerned with repetitive patterns in human behavior, presented accdg. To logically related hypothesis supported by empirical evidence GOAL OF SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH:
Understand the observable world Main function: test or verify a hypothesis Acquire set of generalizations on the nature of human behavior and society, patterns of social life and forces that lead to social change Ultimate result: accumulation of scientific knowledge that describes the realities that surround people stands for SCIENTIFIC TRUTH

1. Define the research problem and Review Related Literature

Select problem Limit the scope and breadth of the problem Locate and evaluate what is already known in the area of inquiry scour the literature, look also for unpublished materials

CONDUCTING SOCIOLOGICAL INQUIRY

2. Formulate the hypothesis

Hypothesis: proposition or assumption stating what is to be resolved Facts can prove it to be true or false Sources: common sense, ideas, folk knowledge, personal & social experiences, values & even theory

3. Plan the research design

Research Design: kind of strategy or blueprint for an efficient and effective way of carrying out research Includes subject of the study, method of conducting research & specific techniques for collecting data

CONDUCTING SOCIOLOGICAL INQUIRY

4. Gather the data
Forms the basis for the conclusion Data gathered should be documented and organized for analysis

5. Analyze the data

Involves testing the hypothesis or answering questions or assumptions using the data gathered Problems of measurements arise (reliability and validity are major issues) Reliability: consistency in the results yielded by a study/research instrument Validity: accuracy by which the research measures what is intended to measure Sociologists have to ascertain that what is being measured is actually the phenomenon in which they are interested.

CONDUCTING SOCIOLOGICAL INQUIRY

6. Formulate the conclusion
Analyze data Hypothesis is either accepted, rejected, or modified A theory is formulated

7. Check or Verify results

Assess the results and make adjustments or corrections as needed

8. Communicate the results to others

Common way is to publish Or present it in a sociology or social science conference

METHODOLOGICAL DESIGNS IN SOCIOLOGY

Experimental Method
Method for studying the relation b/w two or more variables under highly controlled conditions Variable: measurable dimension of a concept --- varies and changes Ex. Age, sex, educational attainment, occupation, IQ, socioeconomic level Problem: Effect of using Filipino instead of English in the teaching of Sociology on the students grades and in developing nationalism Variables: Age, sex, health conditions, social-economic status, and I.Q. Experimental class: Filipino group & English group
*every grading period, the researcher checks for differences in the students grades and in the manifestations of nationalism.

Survey Research
Involves systematic and large-scale collection of information from people and about people through the se of questionnaire. Questionnaire:
o Intended to determine peoples characteristics, opinions, values, attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, motivations and feelings o Crucial to phrase questions correctly so that bias or confusion will not arise

Involves a sample that closely represents the particular population from which it was chosen i.e. barrio, province, housing project, university or hospital RANDOM SAMPLE vs. STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLE
Random Sample: everyone in the population has an equal opportunity to be picked out Stratified Random Sample: population is divided into age, sex, religion, socioeconomic status and ethnic group Researchers look out for patterns of behavior in terms of age, sex, social class or regional grouping WEAKNESS: results can sometimes be superficial since the responses are short

Field Research (Participant Observation)

Study of the way of life of a group or people in its natural setting
Researcher goes to the field, lives with the people for months, participates in their activity in order to know and feel their culture

Sociologists get in-depth information and intimate knowledge about the people By being in the community where activities takes place, the researcher can describe and explain both the behavior and its contexts ---- basis for interpreting the social dynamics DISADVANTAGE:
o Length of time involved

Participatory Research
Utilizes the people, who are the actual targets of development projects, in the entire research process Involves the peoples conscious reflections on what action and goals the consider possible and desirable People-centered development --- respondents are not only passive objects, they are actively involved in the planning and investigation Effect:
o Research becomes meaningful to them and they more readily mobilize their resources to attain their needs. o It becomes a learning process to the group being studied