CHE 433 THERMODYNAMICS

Thermodynamics: The science of energy. Energy: The ability to cause changes. Thermodynamics = therme + dynamis (heat) (power) Conservation of energy principle: During an interaction, energy can change from one form to another but the total amount of energy remains constant. Energy cannot be created or destroyed. The first law of thermodynamics: An expression of the conservation of energy principle. The first law states that energy is a thermodynamic property.

Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only change forms (the first law).
2

The second law of thermodynamics: Energy has quality as well as quantity, and actual processes occur in the direction of decreasing quality of energy. E.g. A cup of hot coffee left on a table cools down when exposed to surroundings, but a cup of cool coffee in the same room never gets hot by gaining heat from surroundings i.e. without external heat supply.

Heat flows in the direction of decreasing temperature.

Dimensions: Any physical quantity. Units: Magnitudes of dimensions. Primary or fundamental dimensions mass m, length L, time t, and temperature T Secondary dimensions, or derived dimensions velocity V, energy E, and volume V Unit system: Metric SI system kg, m, s English system lbm, ft, s

The SI unit prefixes are used in all branches of engineering.

Work = Force Distance 1 J = 1 Nm 1 cal = 4.1868 J 1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ

The definition of the force units.

6

W weight m mass g gravitational acceleration

Weight changes with gravitational acceleration. A body weighing 60 kgf on earth will weigh only 10 kgf on the moon.

The relative magnitudes of the force units newton (N), kilogram-force (kgf), and pound-force (lbf).

The weight of a unit mass at sea level.

Dimensional homogeneity
All equations must be dimensionally homogeneous. To be dimensionally homogeneous, all the terms in an equation must have the same unit.
1 lbf 32.174 lbm ft s 2 1N 1 kg m s 2 1W 1 J s 1kJ 1000N m 1kPa 1000 N m 2 1 ft 0.3048m 1 min 60s 1lbm 0.45359kg

System: A quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study. Surroundings: The mass or region outside the system Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings. The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable. Systems may be considered to be closed or open.

SURROUNDINGS

SYSTEM

BOUNDARY

A fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary. Also known as CONTROL MASS.

Mass NO

m = const.
Energy YES CLOSED system

GAS 2 kg 1 m3

GAS 2 kg 3 m3

CLOSED system with moving boundary

10

A properly selected region in space. Also known as CONTROL VOLUME. Boundary of open system is called CONTROL SURFACE. E.g. Water heater, car radiator, turbine, compressor.
Real Boundary

Mass YES Energy YES

In

Out

Imaginary Boundary
OPEN system OPEN system with real and imaginary boundary
11

PROPERTY: Any characteristic of a system.

e.g. Pressure (P), Volume (V), Temperature (T) and mass (m)

Intensive : Independent on mass of system. - e.g. Temperature (T), Pressure (P)

Extensive : Dependent on mass of system. - e.g. Total mass, total volume Specific : Extensive properties per unit mass. - e.g. Sp. Vol (v=V/m), Sp. Enthalpy (h=H/m)
12

Density

Specific volume

Specific gravity: The ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some standard substance at a specified temperature (usually water at 4C). Specific weight: The weight of a unit volume of a substance.

Density is mass per unit volume; specific volume is volume per unit mass.

13

Assume a system NOT undergoing any change. Set of properties to completely describe the condition of the system is known as its STATE.

m = 2 kg T1 = 25 C V1 = 1 m3

m = 2 kg T1 = 25 C V1 = 3 m3

STATE 1

STATE 2
14

At a given state, all properties of a system have fixed values. If the value of even one property changes, the state will change.

EQUILIBRIUM : State of balance

Thermal Equilibrium : - NO Temperature Gradient throughout the system. Mechanical Equilibrium : - NO Pressure Gradient throughout the system. Phase Equilibrium : - System having more than 1 phase. - Mass of each phase is in equilibrium. Chemical Equilibrium : - Chemical composition is constant - NO reaction occurs.

15

Any change a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is known as PROCESS. Series of states through which system passes during the process is known as its PATH.
State 2

Property B

State 1

Path

State 2

State 1

Property A
16

QUASI-STATIC or QUASI-EQUILIBRIUM : Process proceeds in such a manner that system remains infinitesimally close to equilibrium conditions at all times.

Slow compression Quasi-Static

Very fast compression Non-Quasi-Static

17

Pressure

Quasi-Static Process Path

NOTE : Process Path is a CONTINUOUS line only if it is having Quasi-Static Process. Non-Quasi-Static Process is denoted by a DASHED line.

State 1

State 2

Volume Pressure

Non-Quasi-Static Process Path

State 1

State 2

Volume
18

Temperature (T)

V=Const Isochoric
Pressure (P) P=Const Isobaric

h=Const Isenthalpic

s=Const Isentropic

T=Const Isothermal

Volume (V)

Enthalpy (h)/ Entropy (s)

19

State 2

Property B

CYCLE : A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its ORIGINAL state at the end of the process.
Hence, for a CYCLE, the INITIAL and the FINAL states are identical.

State 1

Property A

20

No EXACT definition.
Broad definition : Degree of Hotness / Cold This definition is based on our physiological sensation. Hence, may be

misleading.
e.g. Metallic chair may feel cold than wooden chair; even at SAME temperature.

Properties of materials change with temperature, thus this forms the basis to deduce EXACT level of temperature. e.g. Mercury in glass thermometer is based on the expansion of mercury with temperature.
21

1. 2. 3. 4.

Celsius Scale ( C ) SI System Fahrenheit Scale ( F ) English System Kelvin Scale ( K ) SI System Rankine Scale ( R ) English System

Celsius Scale and Fahrenheit Scale Based on 2 easily reproducible fixed states, Freezing and Boiling points of water. i.e. Ice Point and Steam Point Thermodynamic Temperature Scale - Independent of properties of any substance. - In conjunction with Second Law of Thermodynamics

Thermodynamic Temperature Scale - Kelvin Scale and Rankine Scale.

22

Conversion Factors :
C K F

T ( K ) = T ( C ) + 273.15
Hot End

0.01

273.16

32.02

491.69

T ( R ) = T ( F ) + 459.67

T ( F ) = 1.8 T ( C ) + 32

-273.15

-459.67

Regenerator 0

T ( R ) = 1.8 T ( K )Pulse Tube

23

Definition : Normal Force exerted by a fluid per unit Area. SI Units : 1 Pa 1 kPa 1 MPa 1 bar 1 atm = 1 N/m2 = 103 Pa = 106 Pa = 105 Pa = 103 kPa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa = 1.01325 bar = 0.9679 atm

= 101325 Pa = 101.325 kPa

1 kgf/cm2 = 9.81 N/m2 = 9.81 X 104 N/m2 = 0.981 bar English Units : psi = Pound per square inch ( lbf/in2) 1 atm = 14.696 psi 1 kgf/cm2 = 14.223 psi

24

Absolute Pressure : Actual Pressure at a given position. Measured relative to absolute vacuum i.e. absolute zero pressure. Pressure Gauges are generally designed to indicate ZERO at local atmospheric pressure.

Hence, the difference is known as Gauge Pressure.

i.e. P (gauge) = P (abs) P (atm) Pressure less than local atmospheric pressure is known as Vacuum Pressure. i.e. P (vacuum) = P (atm) P (abs)

25

P (gauge) = P (abs) P (atm) P (vacuum) = P (atm) P (abs)

26

When the variation of density with elevation is known

Pressure difference between two points is proportional to z and For fluids whose density changes significantly with elevation

The pressure of a fluid at rest increases with depth (as a result of added weight).

Free-body diagram of a rectangular fluid element in equilibrium.

27

In a room filled with a gas, the variation of pressure with height is negligible.

Pressure in a liquid at rest increases linearly with distance from the free surface. The pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a given fluid regardless of geometry, provided that the points are interconnected by the same fluid.

28

Pascals law: The pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure throughout by the same amount.

The area ratio A2/A1 is called the ideal mechanical advantage of the hydraulic lift.

Lifting of a large weight by a small force by the application of Pascals law.

29

It is commonly used to measure small and moderate pressure differences. A manometer contains one or more fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil. Measuring the pressure drop across a flow section or a flow device by a differential manometer.

The basic manometer.

In stacked-up fluid layers, the pressure change across a fluid layer of density and height h is gh.
30

Bourdon tube: Consists of a hollow metal tube bent like a hook whose end is closed and connected to a dial indicator needle. Pressure transducers: Use various techniques to convert the pressure effect to an electrical effect such as a change in voltage, resistance, or capacitance. Pressure transducers are smaller and faster, and they can be more sensitive, reliable, and precise than their mechanical counterparts. Strain-gage pressure transducers: Work by having a diaphragm deflect between two chambers open to the pressure inputs. Piezoelectric transducers: Also called solid-state pressure transducers, work on the principle that an electric potential is generated in a crystalline substance when it is subjected to mechanical pressure.

Various types of Bourdon tubes used to measure pressure.

31

Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure. A frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere, which is defined as the pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm in height at 0C (Hg = 13,595 kg/m3) under standard gravitational acceleration (g = 9.807 m/s2).

The length or the cross-sectional area of the tube has no effect on the height of the fluid column of a barometer, provided that the tube diameter is large enough to avoid surface tension (capillary) effects. The basic barometer.
32

PREPARED BY: NORASMAH MOHAMMED MANSHOR FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING, UiTM SHAH ALAM. 0192368303/0355436333 norasmah@salam.uitm.edu.my

33