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Lipid Molecule
We already know that lipids are concentrated sources of energy (9.45 kcal/g) other functions: 1) provide means whereby fat-soluble nutrients (e.g., sterols, vitamins) can be absorbed by the body 2) structural element of cell, subcellular components 3) components of hormones and precursors for prostaglandin synthesis
Lipid Classes
simple: FAs esterified with glycerol compound: same as simple, but with other compounds also attached phospholipids: fats containing phosphoric acid and nitrogen (lecithin) glycolipids: FAs compounded with CHO, but no N derived lipids: substances from the above derived by hydrolysis sterols: large molecular wt. alcohols found in nature and combined w/FAs (e.g., cholesterol)
7.0 2.4
8.5 3.5
32.2 7.8
45.6 45.0
17 54.4 7.1
40 2 0.5
48 11 0.6
Lipid Digestion/Absorption
Fats serve a structural function in cells, as sources of energy, and insulation the poor water solubility of lipids presents a problem for digestion: substrates are not easily accessible to digestive enzymes even if hydrolyzed, the products tend to aggregate to larger complexes that make poor contact with the cell surface and arent easily absorbed to overcome these problems, changes in the physical state of lipids are connected to chemical changes during digestion and absorption
Lipid Digestion/Absorption
Five different phases:
hydrolysis of triglycerides (TG) to free fatty acids (FFA) and monoacylglycerols solubilization of FFA and monoacylglycerols by detergents (bile acids) and transportation from the intestinal lumen toward the cell surface uptake of FFA and monoacylglycerols into the cell and resynthesis to triglyceride packaging of TGs into chylomicrons exocytosis of chylomicrons into lymph
lingual lipase: provides a stable interface with aqueous environment of stomach pancreatic lipase: major enzyme affecting triglyceride hydrolysis colipase: protein anchoring lipase to the lipid lipid esterase: secreted by pancreas, acts on cholestrol esters, activated by bile phospholipases: cleave phospholipids, activated by trypsin
These are biological detergents synthesized by the liver and secreted into the intestine they form the spherical structures (micelles) assisting in absorption hydrophobic portion (tails of FA) are located to the inside of the micelle, with heads (hydrophillic portion) to the outside they move lipids from the intestinal lumen to the cell surface absorption is by diffusion (complete for FA and monoglycerides, less for others)
Lipid Metabolism/Absorption
short chain FAs are absorbed and enter the portal vein to the liver those FAs with more than 10 carbons are resynthesized by the liver to triglycerides they are then converted into chylomicrons and pass to the lymphatic system some FAs entering the liver are oxidized for energy, others stored blood lipids: 45% P-lipids, 35% triglycerides, 15% cholestrol esters, 5% free FAs
Nomenclature reflects location of double bonds also used are common names (e.g., oleic, stearic, palmitic) linoleic is also known as 18:2 n-6 this means the FA is 18 carbons in length, has 2 double bonds, the first of which is on the 6th carbon arachidonic = 20:4 n-6
Whats in a Name??
Fatty Acid Nomenclature
Only recently determined as essential (1930) body can synthesize cholesterol, phospholipids research: same as AAs but via addition (EFAs added improved growth, NEFAs didnt) requirement determined by depleting fat reserves of subject animal: difficult
Most NEAA found in marine food webs Essential fatty acids (to date):
linoleic (18:2 n-6; terrestrials; fish - not really) linolenic (18:3 n-3; terrestrials; fish) arachidonic (20:4 n-6; marine maybe) eicosopentaenoic acid (20:5 n-3, marine) docosohexaenoic (22:6 n-3, marine) Why? Because elongation beyond 18 carbons is very difficult in marine fish (lack pathways) actual EFA requirement is a matter of whether the fish is FW/SW or WW/CW
salmonids need n-3 FAs for membrane flexibility in cold water (why does this work?) trout can elongate and desaturate n-3 FAs Linoleic acid (18:2 n-6) is the most essential addition of arachidonic is also helpful in deficient diets, but can be synthesized from linoleic (maybe sparing effect) EFAs, like EAAs, must be dietary
Largely, n-6 FAs (linoleic) used for energy as temperature drops, requirement for monounsaturated and PUFAs increases change in temperature = change in diet cold water species = increased dietary HUFAs maturation animals: increased requirement for 20:4 n-6, 20:5 n-3 and 22:6 n-3 for proper spawning
General Comments
Carbohydrates often written as COH much of what we need to know about them, besides their structure, was covered in Bioenergetics, Parts 1&2 here, we cover structure
Carbohydrate Structure
Basic chemical structure consists of sugar units found as aldehydes or ketones derived from polyhydric alcohols contain: C, H, O often shown as aliphatic or linear structures, but exist in nature as ringed structures
Glucose Structure
O
CH2OH
H OH
H-C-OH
H OH
H-C-OH
Haworth perspective
CH2OH
Carbohydrate Classification
Usually by the number of sugar units in the molecule: monosaccharides (glucose) disaccharides (2 units) maltose (2 glucose units) sucrose (glucose + fructose) polysaccharides (long chain polymers of monosaccharides most important polysaccharides to animals are starch and cellulose
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH H O OH
OH
CH2OH
O O H H
O O H
OH
OH
OH
cellulose
Starch contains -D-glucose linkage Cellulose has a -D-glucose linkage we store starch in muscle tissues as glycogen, peeled off by enzymes when needed cellulose is primary component of plant tissue, largely indigestible to monogastrics must have enzyme, cellulase