Values

Values
Basic convictions that a
specific mode of conduct or
end-state of existence is
personally or socially
preferable to an opposite or
converse mode of conduct or
end-state of existence.
Value System
A hierarchy based on a ranking of an
individual’s values in terms of their intensity.

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 Characteristics
• Judgmental element - what is right, good,
or desirable.

• Values have both content and intensity

attributes.

• Values are not generally fluid and flexible.

They tend to be relatively stable and
enduring.
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 Importance of Values
• Provide understanding of the attitudes,
motivation, and behaviors of individuals and
cultures.
• Influence our perception of the world around
us.
• Represent interpretations of “right” and
“wrong.”
• Imply that some behaviors or outcomes are
preferred over others.
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 Types of Values – Rokeach Value
Survey
Milton Rokeach created the Rokeach Value Survey
consisting of two sets of values, with each containing 18
individual value items.
Terminal Values
Desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a
person would like to achieve during his or her
lifetime. e.g.: A comfortable life, Equality, National
Security, Self-respect
Instrumental Values
Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving
one’s terminal values. e.g.: Ambitious, Courageous, and
Obedient
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Dominant Work Values in Today’s
Workforce

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 Hofstede’s Framework for
Assessing Cultures
To analyze variations among cultures a research was done
in late 1970s by Greet Hofstede. He surveyed more than
1,16,000 IBM employees in 40 countries about their work-
related values.
Power Distance
The extent to which a society accepts that
power in institutions and organizations is
distributed unequally.
Low Distance: Relatively equal distribution
High Distance: Extremely unequal distribution

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Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)
Individualism Collectivism
The degree to which A tight social
people prefer to act framework in which
as individuals rather people expect others in
than a member of groups of which they
groups. are a part to look after
them and protect
them.

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Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)
Achievement
The extent to which societal values
are characterized by assertiveness,
materialism and competition.

Nurturing
The extent to which societal
values emphasize relationships
and concern for others.

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Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)

Uncertainty Avoidance
The extent to which a
society feels threatened by
uncertain and ambiguous
situations and tries to avoid
them.

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Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)
Long-term Orientation
A national culture attribute
that emphasizes the future,
thrift, and persistence.

Short-term Orientation
A national culture attribute
that emphasizes the past
and present, respect for
tradition, and fulfilling social
obligations.
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 The • Assertiveness
GLOBE • Future Orientation
Framework • Gender differentiation
• Uncertainty avoidance
• Power distance
for • Individual/collectivism
Assessing • In-group collectivism

Cultures • Power orientation

• Humane orientation

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 Attitudes

Attitudes Cognitive component

The opinion or belief
Evaluative segment of an attitude.
statements
or Affective Component
judgments The emotional or feeling
concerning segment of an attitude.
objects,
people, or Behavioral Component
events. An intention to behave in a
certain way toward someone or
something.
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 Types of Attitudes
Job Satisfaction
A collection of positive and/or negative feelings
that an individual holds toward his or her job.

Job Involvement
Identifying with the job, actively
participating in it, and considering
performance important to self-
worth.
Organizational Commitment
Identifying with a particular
organization and its goals, and
wishing to maintain membership in
the organization. 13
 The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
Leon Festinger, in the late 1950s, proposed the theory of
cognitive dissonance, seeking to explain the linkage between
attitudes and behavior. He argued that any form of
inconsistency is uncomfortable and that individuals will attempt
to reduce the dissonance.
Dissonance means “an inconsistency.”
Cognitive Dissonance: Any incompatibility between two or
more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes.

Desire to reduce dissonance

• Importance of elements creating dissonance
• Degree of individual influence over elements
• Rewards involved in dissonance
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 Measuring the A-B Relationship
• Early research on attitudes and common sense assumed a causal
relationship to behavior.
• In the late 1960s, this assumed relationship between attitudes and
behavior (A-B) was challenged.
• Recent research indicates that attitudes (A) significantly predict
behaviors (B) when moderating variables are taken into account.

Moderating Variables
• Importance of the attitude
• Specificity of the attitude
• Accessibility of the attitude
• Social pressures on the individual
• Direct experience with the attitude
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 Self-Perception Theory

Attitudes are used after the fact to make sense

out of an action that has already occurred.

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 An Application: Attitude Surveys
Attitude Surveys
Eliciting responses from employees through questionnaires
about how they feel about their jobs, work groups, supervisors,
and the organization.
Using Attitude Surveys on regular basis provides managers
with valuable feedback on how employees perceive their
working conditions.

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 Job Satisfaction
• Measuring Job Satisfaction
– Single global rating
• Asking individuals to respond to one question, such as
“All things considered, how satisfied are you with your
job?”
– Summation score
• It identifies key elements in a job and asks for the
employee’s feelings about each one ranked on a
standardized scale.
• Typical factors that would be included are the nature of
the work, supervision, present pay, promotion
opportunities, and relations with co-workers.

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 The Effect of Job Satisfaction on
Employee Performance
• Satisfaction and Productivity
– Satisfied workers aren’t necessarily more productive.
– Worker productivity is higher in organizations with
more satisfied workers.
• Satisfaction and Absenteeism
– Satisfied employees have fewer avoidable absences.
• Satisfaction and Turnover
– Satisfied employees are less likely to quit.
– Organizations take actions to retain high performers
and to weed out lower performers.
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 Job Satisfaction and OCB

• Satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship

Behavior (OCB)
– Satisfied employees who feel fairly treated by
and are trusting of the organization are more
willing to engage in behaviors that go beyond
the normal expectations of their job.

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 Job Satisfaction and Customer
Satisfaction
• Satisfied employees increase customer
satisfaction because:
– They are more friendly, upbeat, and
responsive.
– They are less likely to turnover which helps
build long-term customer relationships.
– They are experienced.
• Dissatisfied customers increase employee
job dissatisfaction.
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Responses to Job Dissatisfaction

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 How Employees Can Express
Dissatisfaction
Exit Voice
Behavior directed Active and
toward leaving the constructive attempts
organization. to improve
conditions.
Loyalty Neglect
Passively waiting for Allowing conditions
conditions to improve. to worsen.

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