Network Models

Tasks involved in sending a letter

2.2

Communication Architecture
Strategy for connecting host computers and other communicating equipment.

Defines necessary elements for data communication between devices.

A communication architecture, therefore, defines a standard for the communicating hosts. A programmer formats data in a manner defined by the communication architecture and passes it on to the communication software. Separating communication functions adds flexibility, for example, we do not need to modify the entire host software to include more communication devices.

Layer Architecture
Layer architecture simplifies the network design.

It is easy to debug network applications in a layered architecture network.

The network management is easier due to the layered architecture. Network layers follow a set of rules, called protocol.

The protocol defines the format of the data being exchanged, and the control and timing for the handshake between layers.

International Standards Organization (ISO) - a multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model - An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications - introduced in the late 1970s.
Note
ISO is the organization. OSI is the model.

OSI Reference Model

considered the primary Architectural model for intercomputer communications. describes how information or data makes its way from application programmes (such as spreadsheets) through a network medium (such as wire) to another application programme located on another network.

divides the problem of moving information between computers over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and more manageable problems . This separation into smaller more manageable functions is known as layering.

OSI Model

OSI Reference Model: 7 Layers

Layer

Responsible For:

7.) Application Provides Services to User Apps User Level Processing

6.) Presentation Data Representation & Syntax

5.) Session Communication Between Hosts Sync Points and Dialogs

4.) Transport
3.) Network 2.) Data Link 1.) Physical

Flow Ctrl, Error Detection/Correction Reliable End to End

End to End Delivery, Logical Addr Unreliable Thru Multi-Node Network Media Access Ctrl, Physical Addr Reliable Across Physical Line Medium, Interfaces, Puts Bits on Med. Unreliable Wire

Layer

Example

7.) Application HTTP, FTP, SMTP 6.) Presentation ASCII, JPEG, PGP 5.) Session BOOTP, NetBIOS, DHCP, DNS

4.) Transport
3.) Network

TCP, UDP, SPX

IP, IPX, ICMP

2.) Data Link

1.) Physical

Ethernet, Token Ring, Frame Relay

Bits, Interfaces, Hubs

TCP/IP and OSI model

2.10

OSI: A Layered Network Model

The process of breaking up the functions or tasks of networking into layers reduces complexity. Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol specification. Each layer communicates with the same layers software or hardware on other computers.

Lower 4 layers are concerned with the flow of data from end to end through the network.
Upper three layers of the OSI model are oriented more toward services to the applications. Data is Encapsulated with the necessary protocol information as it moves down the layers before network transit.

Internet Model

Peer-to-Peer Processes

Functions of Layers Summary of Layers

Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

2.13

OSI Model

Physical Layer
Provides physical interface for transmission of information. Defines rules by which bits are passed from one system to another on a physical communication medium.

Covers all - mechanical, electrical, functional and procedural - aspects for physical communication.
Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, physical connectors, and other similar attributes are defined by physical layer specifications.

Physical layer

2.15

OSI Model

Data Link Layer

Data link layer attempts to provide reliable communication over the physical layer interface. Breaks the outgoing data into frames and reassemble the received frames. Create and detect frame boundaries. Handle errors by implementing an acknowledgement and retransmission scheme. Implement flow control. Supports points-to-point as well as broadcast communication. Supports simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex communication.

Data link layer

2.17

Hop-to-hop delivery

2.18

OSI Model

Network Layer
Implements routing of frames (packets) through the network. Defines the most optimum path the packet should take from the source to the destination Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be identified. Handles congestion in the network. Facilitates interconnection between heterogeneous networks (Internetworking). defines how to fragment a packet into smaller packets to accommodate different media.

Network layer

2.20

Source-to-destination delivery

2.21

OSI Model

Transport Layer
provide a reliable mechanism for the exchange of data between two processes in different computers.

Ensures that the data units are delivered error free.

Ensures that data units are delivered in sequence. Ensures that there is no loss or duplication of data units. Provides connectionless or connection oriented service. Provides for the connection management. Multiplex channel. multiple connection over a single

Transport layer

2.23

Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

2.24

OSI Model

Session Layer
Provides mechanism for controlling the dialogue between the two end systems. It defines how to start, control and end conversations (called sessions) between applications. requests for a logical connection to be established on an end-users request. log-on or password validation is also handled by this layer. responsible for terminating the connection. provides services like dialogue discipline which can be full duplex or half duplex. provide check-pointing mechanism such that if a failure of some sort occurs between checkpoints, all data can be retransmitted from the last checkpoint.

Session layer

2.26

OSI Model

Presentation Layer
defines the format in which the data is to be exchanged between the two communicating entities. handles data compression and data encryption (cryptography).

Presentation layer

2.28

OSI Model

Application Layer
interacts with application programs
the highest level of OSI model.

contains management functions support distributed applications.

to

Examples of applications are file transfer, electronic mail, remote login etc.

Application layer

2.30

OSI Model

OSI in Action
message begins at the top application layer and moves down the OSI layers to the bottom physical layer. the message descends, each successive OSI model layer adds a header to it. A header is layer-specific information that basically explains what functions the layer carried out. Conversely, at the receiving end, headers are striped from the message as it travels up the corresponding layers.

OSI Model

OSI in Action

Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model

2.33

TCP/IP Model

OSI & TCP/IP Models

Addresses in TCP/IP

2.35

Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

2.36

Example 2.1
In Figure 2.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the figure shows, the computer with physical address 10 is the sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is the receiver.

2.37

Physical addresses

2.38

Example 2.2
Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

2.39

Figure 2.20 IP addresses

2.40

Example 2.3
Figure 2.20 shows a part of an internet with two routers connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or router) has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for each connection. In this case, each computer is connected to only one link and therefore has only one pair of addresses. Each router, however, is connected to three networks (only two are shown in the figure). So each router has three pairs of addresses, one for each connection.

2.41

Figure 2.21 Port addresses

2.42

Example 2.4
Figure 2.21 shows two computers communicating via the Internet. The sending computer is running three processes at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The receiving computer is running two processes at this time with port addresses j and k. Process a in the sending computer needs to communicate with process j in the receiving computer. Note that although physical addresses change from hop to hop, logical and port addresses remain the same from the source to destination.
2.43

Example 2.5
A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one decimal number as shown.

753
A 16-bit port address represented as one single number.

2.44

Summary of layers

2.45

46