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V.Velmurugan
Sr Lecturer
Nanotechnology Division
VIT University
• Litho – Stone
graphy- writing
( c ) Throughput: The number of wafers that can be exposed per hour for a
given mask level and is thus a measure of the efficiency of
The challenges are Mask cost, fabrication delay, and the cost of the instrument.
Moore’s Law
• Gordon Moore in 1965
predicted that the number
of transistors on an IC
would double every year
for the next 10 years.
• Resists are tuned to respond to specific wavelengths of light and different exposure
sources.They are given specific thermal flow characteristics and formulated to adhere
to specific surfaces.
• (a) Polymers : Polymer structure changes from soluble to polymerized (or vice versa) when
exposed by the exposure source and the aligner. (+ve or – ve resist depends on this factor).
Light sensitive and energy sensitive polymers: Polymers are groups of large, heavy molucules
containinbg carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that are formed into a reparated pattern.
• (b) solvents: Thin resists to allow application of thin layers by spinning. This is the major portion
of the resist. In negative resists , sensitizers are added to resist either to assist or to narrow the
response range for a particular wavelength.
• (c) Sensitizers : control and/or modifies chemical reaction of the resist during exposure
• (d) additives: Various added chemical to achieve process result, such as dyes. They are added to
get a particular result. In positive resists may have dissolution inhibitor systems, that inhibit the
dissolution of the non exposed portions of the resist during the development. In negative resists
they may have dyes intended to absorb and control light rays in the resist film.
• For positive resists, the exposed region becomes more soluble and thus more readily removed
in the developing process. The net result is that the patterns formed in the positive resist are the
same as those on the mask.
• For negative resists, the exposed regions become less soluble, and the patterns engraved are
the reverse of the mask patterns.
One major drawback of a negative photoresist is that the resist absorbs developer solvent and
swells, thus limiting the resolution of a negative photoresist.
• The figure shows exhibits a typical exposure
response curve for a positive resist. Note that the
resist has a finite solubility in the developer solution
even prior to exposure. At a threshold energy, ET,
the resist becomes completely soluble. ET
therefore corresponds to the sensitivity of the
photoresist. Another parameter, γ, is the contrast
ratio and is given by: