Chapter 8

Rock Testing

INTRODUCTION
Rock Mechanics is a field of applied science and has been recognized as a discipline in engineering since the last four decades. It is a study on the mechanical properties and behaviors of rock under loading (mechanics), sets of established principles expressing rock mass response to load, and a logical methodology for applying these notions and techniques to real physical problems. Rock mechanics is a branch in geotechnical engineering.

Contd

Rock is defined as mixtures formed of aggregates of one or more minerals. Classified according to their types (mode of formation) that is igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rock.
In terms of strength, the boundary between soil and rock is 1 MPa.

Other properties that differentiate between soils and rocks are density, seismic velocity, Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio and porosity.

Contd

Among the important scopes in Rock Mechanics:(1)Measurement and monitoring of the behaviors and properties of rock (material and mass) and discontinuities in rock: using specific testing procedures and instrumentations, in laboratory and in situ. (2)Determination of rock material constants and relevant equations: describing the rock behavior; deformability under loading (shear and compressive), strength, mode of failure and elastic modulus (E, G and v). (3)Methods of excavation and design of civil engineering structures in rock. (4)Rock stabilization methods (support and reinforcement) for structure in rock.

Rock Testing
Rock is a naturally occurring material and thus, it is inhomogeneous and anisotropic. For artificial material like concrete, its strength can be readily estimated from its designed mix and behaves relatively more homogeneous compared to rock. Rocks are used either as construction materials (fill and reclamation material) or as part of an engineering structure (cut slope, foundation, underground excavation). Rock names and classifications (as defined in Geology) do not provide the numerical values on strength or material properties of rock.

However, these are essential parameters for the design of structures in rock and anticipating the potential problems in civil engineering construction (e.g. method of excavation and stabilizations).
Rock testing is therefore an important topic in rock mechanics.

Contd

Rock testing is aimed at measuring, numerically, the behaviors and properties of rock (in terms of material and mass scale).
Correct properties and elastic constants of rock are essential particularly when these parameters are used as input/data for the design and simulation of a structure under in situ loading conditions using specific software (e.g. Plaxis, G-Slope & Finite Element). Input parameters for design include properties like compressive strength, elastic constants and shear strength of discontinuities.

Contd
Strengths of rock material and rock mass need to be evaluated for the civil engineering structures design such:

(1) Shear strength (slope, underground excavation and foundation).

(2) Tensile strength (foundation and shape and size of an underground excavation). (3) Compressive strength (slope, foundation and size of an underground excavation). (4) Compressive and tensile strength (stress distribution around an excavation).

Types of Rock Testing

Rock testing is divided into two types namely, laboratory and in situ test. The tests are undertaken to measure the basic properties, index properties and engineering properties of rock (Table 8.3). Field or in situ test include plate bearing test, full-scale shear test, creep test and stress distribution by means of instrumentations. Laboratory tests include compression tests (uniaxial & triaxial), shear test, creep test, fatigue/dynamic loading test.

Contd

Testing methods or procedures are divided into: (a) Index or indirect test (b) Direct test or strength test

Recommended method of testing: (ISRM, 1982) = are with the objective of standardizing test procedures on all types of rocks. For laboratory test using small and intact rock sample, the effect of specimen size and scale of rock mass discontinuities (bedding planes, mineral arrangement, joint/cracks) on laboratory test data must be evaluated and corrected accordingly.

Types of Rock Testing

Testing methods or procedures are divided into: (a) Index or indirect test (b) Direct test or strength test

Index or Indirect Test

Normally does not involved preparation of samples (which is costly) and test may not be associated with destruction of samples (non-destructive test or NDT). Thus, these tests are relatively easier to undertake and cheaper. Among the tests commonly carried out: (1) Point-load index test (2) Schmidt's hammer test (rebound hammer L-type) (3) Slake durability index test (4) Brazilian test (indirect tensile test) (5) Seismic velocity test (PUNDIT test)

Point-load index test

A simple and fast to estimate the uniaxial compressive strength of rock. Sample can be in the form of core (cylinder) or irregular shape (block). Equipment is portable and test can be undertaken in the field. Point-load index strength obtained (Is) can be used to estimate the UNIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (UCS) of rock tested using the following formula (after Broch & Franklin, 1972): c 24Is (for core sample diameter = 50mm) c (14 + 0.175d)Is , for d measured in units of mm (for platen separation, D 50mm, size correction is necessary)

Point-load index test

Schmidt's hammer test (rebound hammer L-type)

Can be conducted using Schmidt's hammer (L-type).

Test is simple and fast and equipments is portable.

Test can be undertaken on the surface of block or core samples and does not involve destruction of sample. Index value obtained is rebound number (R) which is a measure of the degree of hardness of rock surface.

Value of R can be used to estimate the COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF ROCK using the following equation: Log10 JCS = 0.00088(y)(R) + 1.01 (Franklin, 1989)

Where, JCS (MPa) is the compressive strength of rock surface; y (kN/m3) is unit weight of rock. For fresh rock (weathering grade I), JCS is approximately equals to the UCS of the rock material.

Schmidt's hammer test (rebound hammer L-type)

Slakes durability
Slake's durability test is used for measuring the 'RESISTANCE INDEX' of a rock when SUBJECTED TO WEATHERING in quantitative durability values. Test is conducted under simulated rapid weathering condition, drying and wetting cycles with abrasion (soaking of aggregate sample in water),. Softer and highly weathered rock slakes easily and slake durability index (Is) is less than 80%. For harder or unweathered rock the value of Is is above 90%.

Slakes durability

Brazilian test (indirect tensile test)

The test is an indirect method for measuring the TENSILE STRENGTH of rock. Direct tensile test on rock sample is relatively difficult and expensive to undertake. Sample, in the form of disc-shaped, is loaded under compression until failure. Tensile strength of rock is much less than its compressive strength, normally about 5 to 10% of UCS.

Brazilian test (indirect tensile test)

Ultrasonic Velocity Test

This is the test for estimating the DEGREE OF DENSENESS OF ROCK. PRIMARY (P) WAVE travels FASTER in DENSER MATERIAL. Typical P-WAVE VELOCITY (VP) for materials like top soils and clays is LESS THAN 2000m/s compared to HARD ROCK that may EXCEED 3000m/s. Rock of LOW POROSITY also exhibits a HIGHER P-WAVE VELOCITY. P-wave velocity can be used to DIFFERENTIATE between SOIL and ROCK material and also as a GUIDE FOR ROCK CLASSIFICATION. If VELOCITY OF SECONDARY (S) WAVE (VS) is also measured in PUNDIT test (using a SPECIAL TRANSDUCER), a number of DYNAMIC material properties (e.g. dynamic elastic modulus, E and v) of rock sample can be approximated using, e.g. E:

E = [(VS2 * )/g+*(3 * (Vp/ Vs)2 - 4)/((Vp/ Vs)2 - 1)] Where is unit weight of sample (kN/m3) and g is gravitational pull.

Ultrasonic Velocity Test

Contd In summary, INDIRECT or INDEX TESTS do NOT PROVIDE DIRECTLY the STRENGTH OF THE ROCK.

STRENGTH of the rock material is measured NUMERICALLY using an INDEX and CONVERTED TO STRENGTH using SPECIFIC CORRELATION (e.g. UCS estimated from hammer rebound number). STRENGTH VALUE obtained is LESS ACCURATE however, tests are relatively EASIER and CHEAPER to conduct. INSTRUMENTS are also PORTABLE and EASY to handle. Test can be conducted on IRREGULAR SAMPLES and ON ROCK SURFACE. NON-DESTRUCTIVE NATURES of some tests allow samples to be REUSED for other tests. Although, the value of strength obtained is LESS ACCURATE but tests can be done in a LARGE NUMBER thus, improve the average strength value for better estimation on rock strength.

Direct or Strength Test

DIRECT TESTS require DETAILED SAMPLE PREPARATION (size and shape) using specific laboratory equipments. ROCK SAMPLES are usually TESTED UNTIL FAILURE to give their strength value DIRECTLY. Equipments used in the test are COMPLEX, BULKY and EXPENSIVE.

These factors make direct test MORE EXPENSIVE and thus LIMITED TO ROCK PARAMETERS that are essential for design purposes.

Contd

Among tests normally conducted are: (1) Permeability test. (2) Deformation modulus - modulus of elasticity E and Poisson's ratio, v. (3) Unconfined compression test (UCS) & Triaxial compression test. (4) Shear test on discontinuity planes (e.g. joint, bedding and foliation).

Uniaxial Compression Test (UCS)

This test requires specific sample preparation (as recommended by ISRM) that involved coring, trimming and lapping. Sample is cylindrical shape of 52 mm diameter (NX Barrel) & height between 2 and 3 times diameter. UNIAXIAL/ULTIMATE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (UCS) of rock sample is determined byloading the sample under compression until failure. Machine used is high capacity compression machine (Figure 8.6). Besides UCS (MPa), if uniaxial strain (a) and lateral strain (r) are measured during testing, value of Young's modulus (E) and Poisson ratio (v) of the rock sample can also be determined. Graph that normally plotted is STRESS (MPa) versus uniaxial and lateral STRAIN (%) (stress-strain curve), such as Figure 8.7. From this plot, the following parameters can be obtained:

E = / a

Contd

The average value of E (GPa) is the gradient of stress-strain curve taken at 50% UCS (50% c).
Typical value of E for rock is between 3 - 90GPa (Table 8.1).

UCS or c of rock varies between rock types, e.g. 50MPa for marble up to 500MPa for quartzite.
The strength also varies between rocks of similar type obtained from different locality. Poisson's ratio is calculated as (if both radial and axial strains are measured) : V = r / (-a) Typical v for rock is between 0.10 and 0.3 as shown in Table 8.1.

Table 8.1 Typical values of modulus of elasticity for fresh rock (Stacey & Page, 1986)

Rock type Andesite, Basalt Gabbro, Dolerile Coal Dolomite

Young's modulus E (GPa) 60 90 3 70

Poisson's ratio, v 0.20 0.20 0.42 0. 1 5

Gneiss
Granite Limestone Quartzite

60
60 70 80

0.24
0.22 0.30 0.17

Sandstone
Syal

20
12

0.15
0.10

Contd

Table 8.2 shows the typical static mechanical properties (index and strength) of some common rock types (after Bengt Stillbog, 1986).

MODE OF FAILURE of rock sample after compression also INDICATES ITS STRENGTH.
Unlike soils, ROCKS FAIL EXPLOSIVELY in a SUDDEN MANNER under uniaxial compression. Occasionally FRACTURE PLANES are distinctive.

This indicates their brittleness, i.e. higher stress and smaller strain at failure.
Typical modes of failure for rock samples are shown in Figure 8.10 (Farmer 1982).

Table 8.2

Typical static mechanical properties of some common rock types (after Bengt Stillborg, 1986)
Unconfined compressive strength c [MPa] 50 - 200 5-15 50- 150 5 - 200 Tensile Strength t [MPa] 5-20 5-15 2-20 Modulus of elasticity E [GPa] 20 - 70 15-50 20-50 Point load Index Is(50)[MPa] 0.5 - 7 0.1 -6 0.2-7 6- 10

Rock class

Rock type

Angle of Friction,
33 -40 25-35 27-31

Limestone Mudstone Sedimentary rock Sandstone Siltstone

Shale
Gneiss Metamorphic rock Marble Quartz Basalt Igneous rock Gabbro Granite

50- 100
100-200 100-200 200 - 400 100-300 100 - 300 100-200

2- 10
5-20 5-20 25 - 30 10- 15 10-15 5-20

5 -30
30-70 30-70 50-90 40-80 40- 100 30-70

2- 11 2-12 5- 15 9- 14 6- 15 5- 10

27
23 - 29 25 - 35 48 31 -38 29-35

Mode of failure of rock under compression: crushing, fracture plane and barreling (ductile)

Triaxial Compression Test

This test is to evaluate the STRENGTH OF ROCK UNDER CONFINED CONDITIONS, representing rock occurring at depth ( = gh). These include rock material in HIGH SLOPE and material at TUNNEL WALLS. Under CONFINED CONDITION, rock is STRONGER and at relatively HIGHER CONFINED STRESS may exhibit DUCTILE (strain-hardening) behavior. Besides compression machine, the test requires a Hoek's Cell (Figure 8.8) to GENERATE CONFINEMENT STRESS.

Contd

Testing procedures are similar to UCT (Uniaxial Compression Test). Each test is conducted at specific confining stress to simulate stress at depth. For triaxial compression test on rock discontinuities, triaxial test is used to obtain the shear strength parameters of the discontinuities ( and ). Triaxial compression test is important to evaluate the strength of rock in construction of underground excavations located very deep below ground surface (cavern for power house) and underground cavity for radioactive disposals. The test is also essential for evaluating strength of bed rock for foundation of heavy structures.

Triaxial compression test set-up

Compression machine Constant Pressure Unit Hoek Cell

Shear Test
The test is done on rock sample and is important in project involving EXCAVATION OF FRACTURED and JOINTED ROCK. Shear test is normally conducted on WEAKNESS PLANES IN ROCK (joint, fault and bedding plane), NOT shearing the intact rock material.

Failure and instability in rock mass (plane, wedge, toppling and rock fall) are usually associated with WEAKNESS PLANES.
Thus to evaluate the stability of CUT SLOPES and TUNNEL WALLS, the shear strength of the discontinuities in the in-situ rock must be evaluated using laboratory test or field test (if necessary).

continue
Sampling of DISCONTINUITIES for laboratory test is EXPENSIVE and COMPLEX. Depending on the roughness scale of the discontinuity surface sample up to 300 x 300 mm may be required CORE SAMPLES obtained during site investigation may also be used for laboratory test. During SAMPLING AND SAMPLE PREPARATION, care and precaution must be taken to ensure simple is NOT DISTURBED.

Portable shear box apparatus

Direct shear apparatus

Direct shear apparatus with servocontrolled system

Shear box assembly for 300 300 mm square-shape joint block.

(a) and (b) types of in situ shear test. (c) shear test on unconfining sliding block at constant normal load (d) shear test on confined sliding block, variable normal load to ensure constant normal displacement (Bradey & Brown, 1985)

Parameters affecting laboratory testing

Standard testing and sample preparation procedures (ISRM 1982) are mainly to MINIMIZE factors affecting data obtained from a test. Among the factors include: TESTING PROCEDURES - test procedures according to standard methods. ENVIRONMENT (mainly laboratory test) - temperature and humidity. SPECIMEN SIZE (when discontinuities are included in the sample; core sample of clastic sedimentary rock and metamorphic rock). SPECIMEN SHAPE (e.g. D:L and H:D ratio)

 LOADING RATE (kN/s), STRAINING RATE (% strain/s) and SHEARING RATE (mm/s) - the higher the loading rate, the lower the strength. (ISRM recommended range: 0.1 to 0.001 millistrain/s or corresponding to 1,000 to 10 psi/s DEGREE OF SATURATION OF SAMPLE (normally tested under saturated condition or report on sample saturation during test).
FLATNESS AND SMOOTHNESS OF SPECIMEN SURFACES (bending and flexural effect on compression, cracks may initiates failure). END-CONDITION OR CONTACT BETWEEN SAMPLE AND LOADING PLATENS (standard surface finish of sample and platen and platen material). EFFECT OF DIFFERENT END-CONDITIONS AND H/D RATIO on compressive strength is shown in Figure 8.12.

EFFECT OF DIFFERENT END-CONDITIONS AND H/D RATIO on compressive strength is shown in Figure 8.12. For a given sample diameter (D), ultimate compressive strength (ult) decreases with increasing sample height (H). For H/D greater than 2.0 ult remains constant, thus the recommended H/D > 2 to eliminate size effect. End-conditions also affect ult. The stronger the end platens (graphite, rubber and steel) the higher is the ult. (note: an important aspect in designing a pillars size in underground coal mining). STIFFNESS OF COMPRESSION MACHINE USE - stiff loading column or machine equipped with closed-loop servo-controlled loading system to reduce sudden/violent post failure mode.

THE STATE OF STRESS (remnant stress) in tie rock mass may affect the strength of rock sample obtained for testing.
Most of the above effect CANNOT BE ELIMINATED but can be MINIMIZED through STANDARD PROCEDURES (ISRM, ASTM, U.S. Bureau of Mines, South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy).

Discontinuities in rock and their effect on strength

Strength of rock material and rock mass consist of COMPRESSION (uniaxial and triaxial), TENSILE, SHEAR (discontinuity planes) and other strength properties like fatigue and creep. Depending on the SCALE being considered (MATERIAL or rock MASS scale), the strength of rock is affected by the presence of DISCONTINUITIES (big and small scale) in rock. The most important effect is strength reduction.

Contd

For small laboratory rock sample, it is affected by minerals arrangement and how cleavage such as schistoscity (Figure 8.13) in metamorphic rock.
On a larger scale, rock masses are affected by geological structures and discontinuities like bedding, joint and fault (Figure 8.14). The degree of strength reduction depends on loading orientation with respect to discontinuity planes. Figure 8.15 shows the effect of single joint and multiple joint-set under different inclination of uniaxial compression. In many cases luck exhibits multiple joint sets hence, it is weakened in all directions (3rd curve in). In laboratory testing it is important to note the direction of loading with respect to rock anisotropy. Strength parameters of a rock mass that exhibits small and large-scale discontinuities are more appropriately assessed using in-situ large-scale testing (e.g. in-situ shear and plate bearing test).

Contd

WEATHERING also affects the strength of rock. DEGREE OF ROCK WEATHERING is usually evaluated by SITE ASSESSMENT.

Table 8.4 describes degree of weathering of rock mass (Zone 1 to Zone 6) and rock material (Grade I to Grade VI).
Table 8.4 can be used to estimate the strength reduction of the rock.

It is important to differentiate between ZONE (rock mass) and GRADE (rock material).
Since WEATHERING GRADE could only be assessed SUBJECTIVELY with little information on numerical value of weathering degree, the effect of weathering is relatively DIFFICULT to be INCLUDED IN DESIGN. SLAKE DURABILITY TEST may be used to assessed the degree of weathering numerically.

Laboratory test Properties Rock | Soil Rock

In situ test Soil

Table 8.3: Measurement of geotechnical properties of rock and soil (after Hunt, 1984)

(a) BASIC PROPERTIES Specific gravity porosity Void ratio Moisture content Density: Natural Maximum Minimum Relative Hardness X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Durability
Sonic-wave characteristics

X
X (b) INDEX PROPERTIES X X X

Grain-size distribution Liquid limit Plastic limit Plasticity index Shrinkage limit Chemical test (organic, SCX pH) Uniaxial compression X

X X X X X X

Point-load Index

X
(c) ENGINEERING PROPRETIES

Permeability Deformation modulus Consolidation [ixpansion Strength: Unconfined Confined California bearing ratio (CBR)

X X

X X X

X X

X X X

X X X

X X X X

X X

X X

Effect on flow cleavage (schistosity) on strength of rock material

Figure 8.14 Scale effect transition from intact rock to heavily jointed rock mass with increasing sample size

Figure 8.15 The influence of weakness or discontinuity planes on strength, e.g joint orientation with respect to loading axis

Table 8.4

Description of zone and weathering grade of rock (Attwell, 1993)

UCS Test

Conventional compression machine 2000kN

Compression machine with servo controlled system

Stress versus strain (compressive and tensile)

Summary
Geology Normally referred as General Geology: Intro (planet, earth etc), Minerals, Rocks (Igneous, Sedimentary & Metamorphic), Weathering, Agents & Geological structures etc.

Engineering Geology Application of Geology in Engineering: S.I, Geophysics, Slope, Tunnel, foundation on rock etc.
Rock Mechanics Rock Testing: Field & Lab Test, rock strength & properties of rock (basic, index or engineering etc).