HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Definition
Human Development is the scientific study the patterns of growth and change that occurs throughout life Two Types of Change: 1.Quantitative change refers to physical growth like progress in height or weight. 2. Qualitative change refers to the change of function of an organ, resulting to improve efficiency and accuracy.

Aspects of Human Development

1. Physical development - changes in the body structure and motor skills. 2. Perceptual development - development of sensory capacities such as the changes in the seeing and hearing abilities of infants.

Aspects of Human Development

3. Cognitive or Intellectual development - change in mental abilities, learning capacity, memory, reasoning thought processes and language.
4. Personality and Social development - changes in self-concept, gender identity and ones quality of interpersonal relationship.

8 Stages of Development
1. Prenatal stage 2. Infancy (0-2 years old) 3. Early childhood (3-6 years old) 4. Middle childhood (7-12 years old) 5. Adolescence (13-19 years old) 6. Young adulthood (20-35 years old) 7. Middle adulthood (36-49 years old) 8. Late adulthood/Old age (50 years oldDeath)

Process of Development

Heredity is the transmission of traits from parents to offspring Every 28 days a female ovulates and releases an egg cell to fallopian tube. At the height of copulation the male parent releases sperm cells (300-500 million) inside the females vagina. The healthy sperms are programmed to swim and seek out the egg cell and fertilize it.

Female Egg Cell

Male Sperm Cell

Process of Development

Out of the millions of sperms, only about 50 of them will be able to come close to the egg cell The sperms will release enzyme that dissolves the jellylike coating of the egg cell. Meanwhile, the egg is no passive participant; it actually embraces the lucky sperm cell. To avoid penetration by more than one sperm, the egg produces brief electrical shocks on its surface (lasting about 30 seconds) followed by a hard protein coat.

Process of Development

The sperm cell is held down on the eggs membrane, while the coat rises above it, pushing all the other sperms away.

The egg pulls the sperm inside itself, and moves its nucleus to meet that of the sperm.

Process of Development

Fertilization, the union of the egg and the sperm, produces a single cell that is called the zygote, which contains 23 chromosomes (strands of genetic material) contributed by the sperm and 23 chromosomes contributed by the egg. Chromosomes are made up of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), each segment of the DNA is a gene, the basic unit of heredity.

Human Chromosomes

Process of Development

These 46 chromosomes provide programming for inherited characteristics like blood type, height, skin color, and so forth. The 46 chromosomes align in pairs (23 pairs). The first 22 pairs are called autosomes, while the 23rd pair are called sex chromosomes, they will determine the sex or gender of the developing baby.

Process of Development

All eggs and 50% of all sperm cells contain x sex chromosomes, while only the remaining 50% the sperm cells have a y sex chromosome.

A zygote with xx chromosome will become female and a zygote with xy chromosome will become a male.

Process of Development

There are two types of genes, the dominant genes, which carry dominant traits (the stronger one), and recessive genes which carries recessive traits (the weaker one). Incomplete dominance occurs when the dominant trait was not able to cover up the recessive trait.

Process of Development

Codominance happens when two different dominant traits coexist in the offspring, as in the case of a combination of blood type A and blood type B, which results to having blood type AB. Some traits are called sex-linked traits. These traits only appear in a particular gender (males)

Process of Development

Examples of such are: baldness, hemophilia and colorblindness, all manifested by the male population. The genetics cluster of traits that you have, and are observable from the outside is your phenotype. Your total Genetic make up, observable and not, is your genotype.

Kinds of Twins
1. Identical or Monozygotic Twins Twins that developed from a single zygote that split. They look alike because they share almost the same genetic make up. 2. Fraternal or Dizygotic Twins Twins the developed from the simultaneous union of 2 pairs of egg and sperm cell. They do not share the same genetic make up and may be of different gender, one male, one female.

Sex Chromosome Disorder

Klinefelters Syndrome (XXY) - Occurs when a genetic male has an extra x chromosome - Abnormal testes, no sperm production, reduced testosterone production - Tall, poor muscular development, enlarged breasts

Klinefelters Syndrome

Klinefelters Syndrome

Sex Chromosome Disorder

Turners Syndrome (XO) - There is a missing chromosome Short, no menstruation Sexually underdeveloped females

Turners Syndrome

Turners Syndrome

Sex Chromosome Disorder

Superfemale Syndrome (XXX) - Intellectually deficit females - Appears quite normal Supermale Syndrome (XYY) - Taller than normal males - Below average intelligence

Autosomal Abnormalities
Downs Syndrome (trisomy 21) - An extra sex chromosome appeared in the 21st pair of autosomes - Mentally retarded - Sloping forehead, protruding tongue, short limbs, flattened nose, oriental in appearance

Downs Syndrome

Downs Syndrome

Autosomal Abnormalities
Edwards Syndrome (trisomy 18) - An extra sex chromosome appeared in the 18th pair of autosomes - Abnormally small mouth, malformed ears, elongated skull, clenched hand, short breast bone - With congenital heart disease

Edwards Syndrome

Edwards Syndrome

Autosomal Abnormalities
Pataus Syndrome (trisomy 13) - An extra sex chromosome appeared in the 13th pair of autosomes - Defects of eye, nose, lips, ears and forebrain - Having one eye at extreme cases - Has more that the normal number of fingers or toes

Pataus Syndrome

Autosomal Abnormalities

Other congenital defects (like congenital blindness, heart disease) may be a result of maternal diseases (like malaria, chicken pox, German measles), malnutrition, alcohol, smoking, emotion problems, pills, drugs, endocrine irregularities and blood incompatibilities. Collectively, these environmental forces that hinder the healthy development of an unborn child are called teratogens.

Teratogens

Rubella (German Measles) Blindness, deafness, heart abnormalities Syphilis mental retardation, physical deformities, maternal miscarriage Addictive drugs low birth weight, addiction to the drug, possible death from withdrawal Smoking - premature birth, low birth weight and length

Teratogens

Alcohol mental retardation, low weight, small head, limb deformities Radiation from X-rays Physical deformities, mental retardation Inadequate diet reduced brain growths, low weight and length Being your than 18 premature birth, increased incidence of Down syndrome Being older than 35 - increased incidence of Down syndrome

Assumptions About the Stages of Human Development

Behaviors at a given stage are organized around a dominant theme or a coherent set of characteristics. Behaviors at one stage are qualitatively different from the behaviors at an earlier or later stage.

All children go through the same stages in the same order, but may vary in pace.

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

Prenatal Development
1. Germinal Stage (Fertilization 2 weeks) - Rapid cell division - By the end of the stage, the fertilized egg becomes a blastocyst (about the size of a pinhead) and plants itself in the wall of the uterus.

Fertilization

Play video-human fertilization

Cell Division
Day 1

Day 3

Day 6

Prenatal Development
2. Embryonic Stage (end of 2 weeks 2 months) - Major body systems and organs develop. - Organism becomes vulnerable to environmental influences. - Most likely occurrences of chromosomal abnormalities.

Prenatal Development
2. Embryonic Stage - 1st month Measures quarter of an inch - 2nd month As big as an adults smallest toe; back bone formed; legs and arms begin to form; facial features take shape.

Week 4

Prenatal Development
3. Fetal Stage (end of 2 months Birth)

3rd month 3 ; 25 grams; Assumes human form; large head; starts bone formation (teeth buds, nails); genital becomes more recognizable. 4th month 13.5 cm.; 120 grams; about the size of a small orange; broad face, eyes widely separated; capable of swallowing and kicking; nails/eyebrows start to grow.

Week 8

Week 12

Prenatal Development
5th month 7.3; 440 grams; vital organs developed; more frequent movement. 6th month 9; 1.75 lbs.; large head, lean body; with skin wrinkles; skin pink in color; fine downy hair (lanugo) cover the body; eye brows, eye lashes visible. 7th month 10.6; 1.36 kg.; can open eyes; can stretch and kick; skin is red and wrinkled.

Prenatal Development
8th month 12.2; 5lbs.; fat begins to store in the body; lungs fully developed; head/body are proportionate; assume position for delivery. 9th month 14.2 ; 7lbs.; redness and wrinkles fade; downy hair disappears.

Prenatal Development

We as newborns come equipped with reflexes ideally suited for our survival. We as newborns, prefer sights and sounds that facilitate social responsiveness; we turn our heads on the direction of human voices; we gaze longer at a drawing of a face-like image than at a bulls-eye pattern.

Capabilities of a Newborn

We prefer to look at objects 8 to 12 inches away, which just happen to be the approximate distance between a nursing infants eyes and a mothers.

Capabilities of a Newborn

Within days of birth, our brains neural networks were stamped with the smell of our mothers body; thus, a week-old nursing baby, placed between a gauze pad from its mothers bra and one from another nursing mother will usually turn toward the smell of it own mother.

Capabilities of a Newborn

At three weeks, if given a pacifier that sometimes turns on recordings of its mothers voice and sometimes that of a strangers. An infant will suck more vigorously when it hears its now-familiar mothers voice.

Capabilities of a Newborn

Reflexes are unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli
They are critical for survival

Rooting reflex turning ones heads towards things the touch their cheeks

Reflexes

Sucking reflex infants suck things that touch their lips Gag reflex reflex to clear the throat

Startle reflex a series of movements in which an infant flings out the arms, fans the fingers, and arches the back in response to sudden noise

Reflexes

Babinski Reflex a babys toes fan out when the outer edge of the sole of the foot is stroked Grasping Reflex

Infants lose these primitive reflexes after the first few months of life; replaced with more complex an organized behaviors.

Reflexes

Theories of Development

Theories of Development
Theory An organized set of ideas that are designed to explain development. Essential for developing predictions about behavior. Predictions result in research that help to support or clarify the theory

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

Psychodynamic - Freud, Erikson Learning - Watson, Skinner, Bandura Cognitive - Piaget, Kohlberg

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

A. Psychodynamic: 1. Freuds Psychosexual Stages Psychoanalytic Observations and notes that he made about life histories of his mentally disturbed patients Hypnosis, free association, dream analysis We have goals or motives that must be satisfied

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

A. Psychodynamic: Freuds Psychosexual Stages Instincts, Goals and Motives Human behavior is energized by psychodynamic forces Psychic (mental) energy

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

A. Psychodynamic: 1. Freuds Psychosexual Stages Biological Instincts Eros ( life instinct) helps the child to survive; directs life sustaining activities such as respiration, eating, sex and the fulfillment of all other bodily needs Thanatos (death instinct) set of destructive forces present in all human being ex. arson, murder, war, masochism

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development A. Psychodynamic: 1. Freuds Psychosexual Stages

3 Components of Personality Id (pleasure principle) serve the instincts by seeking objects that will satisfy them; seeking immediate gratification of instinctual needs

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

A. Psychodynamic: Freuds Psychosexual Stages 3 Components of Personality Ego (reality principle) find realistic ways of gratifying the instinct; block the ids irrational thinking; ability to delay gratification Superego (moral principle) represents the ideal and strives for perfection rather than for pleasure or reality

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

A. Psychodynamic: 1. Freuds Psychosexual Stages a. Oral Stage (0-1) reflects the infants need for gratification from the mother. An infants eating, sucking, spitting, and chewing do not only satisfy hunger, but also provide pleasure.

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

A. Psychodynamic: 1. Freuds Psychosexual Stages b. Anal Stage (2-3) reflects the toddlers need for gratification along the rectal area. During this stage, children must endure the demands of toilet training.

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

A. Psychodynamic: 1. Freuds Psychosexual Stages c. Phallic Stage (4-5) reflects the preschoolers gratification involving the genitals. Children at this stage gratify their sex instinct by fondling their genitals and developing an incestuous desire for the opposite sex parent.

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

A. Psychodynamic: 1. Freuds Psychosexual Stages c. Phallic Stage Oedipus Complex sexual attachment of a male child to his mother Electra Complex sexual attachment of a female child to her father. The girl envies her father for possessing a penis and wishes he would share with her the valued organ that she lacks.

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

A. Psychodynamic: 1. Freuds Psychosexual Stages d. Latency Stage (6 to puberty) sexual desires are repressed and the entire childs available libido is channeled into socially acceptable outlets such as schoolwork and vigorous play that consume most of the childs physical and psychic energy

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

A. Psychodynamic: 1. Freuds Psychosexual Stages e. Genital Stage (Puberty onwards) is characterized by the maturation of the reproductive system, production of sex hormones, and a reactivation of the genital zone as an area of sensual pleasure.

SIGMUND FREUDS PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

EROGENOUS ZONE (Sexually excitable zone in the body) CRITICAL EVENT FIXATIONS MANIFESTED IN ADULT BEHAVIOR (if conflicts in a particular stage is not resolved)

STAGE

Oral Stage (0-1 year Mouth and lips old)

Feeding

If the child was abruptly weaned, he may manifest alcoholism, smoking, fondness of kissing, oral sadism. If the child was oversatisfied with oral pleasures, he may become, gullible and overdependent.
If the child experienced toilet training too early, he may become controlling, over organized or stubborn. If the child experienced toilet training too late, he become, sloppy, impulsive, or disorganized.

Anal Stage (2-3 years Anus old)

Toilet Training

SIGMUND FREUDS PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

STAGE
EROGENOU S ZONE (Sexually excitable zone in the body)

CRITICAL EVENT

FIXATIONS MANIFESTED IN ADULT BEHAVIOR (if conflicts in a particular stage is not resolved)

Phallic Stage Genitals (4-6 years old)

Gender identification. For boys, they develop sexual desire towards the mother and a desire to eliminate his competition, the father. This is called Oedipus complex. Boys become afraid of the father retaliation and develops Castration anxiety. Then they seek to become or identify with their fathers. For girls, they begin with a strong attachment to their mother but realize that boys have penis and girls dont have. They blame the mother of this inferiority, and develop Penis envy. Their love is transferred to the father who has the sex organ she wants. This is called Electra complex. But, they still must avoid the mothers disapproval and so they identify with their mother.

If the issues during the phallic stage are not resolved, the person may have problem with interpersonal relationships as well as dealing with authority figures. They may also become uncertain about their sexual identity.

SIGMUND FREUDS PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

STAGE

EROGENO US ZONE (Sexually excitable zone in the body)

CRITICAL EVENT

FIXATIONS MANIFESTED IN ADULT BEHAVIOR (if conflicts in a particular stage is not resolved)

Latency This is a period of Peace; most sexual impulses lie dormant. The conflict in the earlier stage resolved or not will be repressed (forgotten). (6-12 years old) Genitals Genital Stage (13 years old onwards) The quality of relationships and degree of fulfillment and contentment that the person experiences during this long stage are tied directly to the success the person has at resolving conflicts during the earlier stages.

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

A. Psychodynamic: 2. Eriksons Psychosocial Stages Basic Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1) Autonomy vs. Shame and Guilt (1-3) Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6) Industry vs. Inferiority (6-Puberty) Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence) Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood) Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood) Integrity vs. Despair (Late Life)

ERIK ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE

CRISIS

IF CRISIS IS RESOLVED

IF CRISIS IS NOT RESOLVED The person will grow mistrusting.

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (0-2 years old) 2. Autonomy vs. Doubt (2-3 years old)

The infant needs The person develops physical/psychologic the virtue of hope and al care and a healthy optimism. sense of attachment. The childs desire to The person develops the virtue of will. be in control and assert independence.

The person becomes constricted and afraid of new experiences. He may also engage in power struggle against authority.

ERIK ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE

CRISIS The child starts to socialize with other children though play. Play, in turn, becomes the primary medium of exploring the world.

IF CRISIS IS RESOLVED The person develops the virtue of initiative, sense of purpose, direction and learns the value of cooperation.

IF CRISIS IS NOT RESOLVED The person becomes doubtful of his capacity to discover the world. He may get into fight for not cooperating.

3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years old)

4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years old)

The child The person The person wallows in feelings of engages to more develops the virtue inferiority. of competence. serious hobbies and becomes more competitive.

ERIK ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE

CRISIS This stage coincides the period of adolescence. The person needs to discover his uniqueness, feel a sense of belongingness, and integrate various roles into a single, consistent individual. The person looks for intimacy in heterosexual relationship.

IF CRISIS IS RESOLVED The person develops the virtue of fidelity; being able to commit to values, organizations, and people.

IF CRISIS IS NOT RESOLVED The person becomes diffused and manifest incongruence or inconsistency in his behavior.

5. Identity vs. Identity Confusion (13-19 Years old)

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (20-39 years old)

The person develops the virtue of commitment and mutual devotion; the ability to sacrifice and compromise.

The person will float from one partner or job to another ,and fell isolated.

ERIK ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE

CRISIS The person feels the need to guide and pass on what he has learned to the younger generation, through mentoring or teaching. He assesses if he has made the right decisions in their life.

IF CRISIS IS RESOLVED The person develops the virtue of generativity, and value wisdom over physical prowess.

IF CRISIS IS NOT RESOLVED The person will feel stagnant, resist the truth about getting older, and relive youthful fantasies.

7. Generativity vs. SelfAbsorption (40-65 years old)

8. Integrity vs. Despair (66 years old onwards)

The person experiences decline in physical health. He wants to know if he had lived well.

The acquires the sense of wholeness or integrity and the virtue of wisdom.

The person lives the remainder of his life in despair.

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

B. Learning Theory Concentrates on how learning influences behavior. Emphasizes the role of experience. Stresses the influence of consequences on behavior. Recognizes that people learn from watching others.

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

B. Learning Theory 1. Wastons Behaviorism Learning determines our behavior. Experience is sufficient to explain the course of development.

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

B. Learning Theory 2. B.F. Skinners Operant Conditioning The consequences of a behavior determine whether it will be repeated. A pleasant consequence increases the chance a behavior will be repeated. An unpleasant consequence decreases the chance a behavior will be repeated.

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

B. Learning Theory 2. B.F. Skinners Operant Conditioning Positive Reinforcement - A pleasant consequence that increases behavior. Negative Reinforcement - Strengthening a behavior by removing or avoiding an unpleasant condition. Punishment - An unpleasant consequence that decreases the frequency of a behavior.

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

B. Learning Theory 3. Banduras Social Learning Theory Observational Learning, or Imitation People learn by watching others. Imitation is more likely when subject of observation is seen as smart, popular, or talented. Imitation is more likely when subject of observation is rewarded for the behavior

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

C. Cognitive-Developmental Theory Emphasizes the development of the thought processes as we mature. Two approaches to the development of cognition: We develop our thinking in stages (Piaget, Kohlberg).

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

C. Cognitive-Developmental Theory 1. Jean Piagets Cognitive Development Theory Children gradually learn more about how the world works by little experiments in which they test their understanding. Cognitive development consists of stages in which childrens understanding of their surroundings become increasingly complex and accurate.

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

C. Cognitive-Developmental Theory 1. Jean Piagets Cognitive Development Theory

2. a. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years) The Child interacts with the world through sensation and movement. Develops the ability to hold a mental representation of objects.

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

C. Cognitive-Developmental Theory 1. Jean Piagets Cognitive Development Theory b. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years) Develops the ability to use symbols, such as numbers and words, to represent objects. Egocentric: understands the world only from his own perspective.

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

C. Cognitive-Developmental Theory 1. Jean Piagets Cognitive Development Theory

c. Concrete Operational Thought (7 years to early adolescence) Can use logic and reasoning Cannot accurately consider the hypothetical

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

C. Cognitive-Developmental Theory 1. Jean Piagets Cognitive Development Theory

d. Formal Operational Thought (Adolescence and beyond) Thinks abstractly. Deals with the hypothetical and speculation

JEAN PIAGETS STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

SENSORIMOTOR 0 2 years

explores world as little experimenters and develop schemas through the senses and motor activities. Discovers relationships between their actions and consequences. An important concept acquired at this stage is object permanence: before 8 months, the baby will stop searching for an object if it is covered (out of sight, out of mind), but around 8 months, baby will readily physically search for the hidden object, indicating that he or she has already has a mental representation of the object- this is object permanence

JEAN PIAGETS STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

PRE-OPERATIONAL
2 7 years on top of object permanence, ability for symbolic thinking emerges; seen from the childs use of symbolic play and use of language. Use of language/words as symbol for things particularly has critical importance. Implications for play: better to let child play with unstructured materials to help facilitate his/her symbolic thinking. Child has still several limitations: 1.ego-centrism inability to consider another persons point of view. 2.animism all things are living or animated and capable of intentions, feelings and consciousness. 3.inability to decenter inability to focus on simultaneous thoughts at the same time. 4.Inability for conservation concepts inability to follow transformations mentally.

JEAN PIAGETS STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

CONCRETE OPERATIONAL 7 11 years less egocentric: can now imagine other persons point of view; now aware that events outside the self have causes outside the self. Thinking begins to be more logical but still limited to concrete experience, i.e., can make logical judgments based on stimuli that are present to the sense. Can perform more operations, e.g. counting, classifying and thus can better understand the principles of conservation.

JEAN PIAGETS STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

FORMAL OPERATIONAL 11 years onwards

hypothetical deductive reasoning develops; can now reason logically and deal with abstractions, not just concrete things. Capacity for abstractions enables person to use and understand, for instance, algebraic signs and metaphorical speech. Able to consider all variables and possibilities simultaneously, make hypotheses, and solve problems by tackling these possibilities systematically. Use of the pendulum problem to test formal operational thinking.

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

C. Cognitive-Developmental Theory 2. Lawrence Kohlbergs Stages of Moral Development Based on Piagets ideas of cognitive development. Described the development of moral thinking through stages of increasing maturity.

LAWRENCE KOHLBERGS STAGES OF MORAL REASONING

Level / Stage of Primary Moral Reasoning Motivation Pre Conventional Morality

Typical Moral Reasoning

Stage 1: Punishment at Obedience Orientation

The Primary motive for action is the avoidance of punishment

A person must be obedient to powerful authority because of fear of punishment. Ex. The husband must not steal the drug because he would be punished.

Stage 2: Reward Orientation

Actions are motivated by The act is moral if it satisfied an important need of the desire for the person or some family member. Ex. He should steal the drug because his wife needs rewards it and he isnt doing any harm to the druggist. He can pay him pay.

LAWRENCE KOHLBERGS STAGES OF MORAL REASONING

Level / Stage of Moral Reasoning

Primary Motivation

Typical Moral Reasoning

Conventional Morality Stage 3: Good The child Boy/Girl strives to Orientation avoid the disapproval of others (As distinct from avoidance of punishment)

A moral action is one that causes others cause to approve. Ex. He should steal the medicine because society expects a husband to help his wife. He is only doing something that is natural for a loving husband to do.

LAWRENCE KOHLBERGS STAGES OF MORAL REASONING

Level / Stage of Moral Reasoning Conventional Morality Stage 4: Authority Orientation / AuthorityMaintaining Morality

Primary Motivation

Typical Moral Reasoning

An act is always wrong if it violates a rule or does harm to others

Moral people are those who do their duty in order to maintain the social order. Ex. He should steal the drug because of people are allowed to be selfish and greedy, our civilization will break down. But he must pay the druggist back and must be punished because people cant take the law into their own hands.

LAWRENCE KOHLBERGS STAGES OF MORAL REASONING Post Conventional Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation / Morality of Contract and Democracy

The individual is able to recognize that laws are subjective, that they are not worshipped in themselves but are relative to the group. Laws exist only because we agree about them (The Aspect of Social Contract). Inasmuch as the person respects the rules of the other group, however, he or she still steps in if what at stakes is a nonnegotiable value (Life and Liberty)

Society has rules and both the individual and society must fulfill their parts of the contract. Ex. Before you say that stealing is wrong, you should consider that the law should not allow the druggist to keep secret a life-saving formula. In this case, it seems reasonable for him to steal the drug.

LAWRENCE KOHLBERGS STAGES OF MORAL REASONING Post Conventional Stage 6: Ethical Principle Orientation / Morality of Individual Principles of Conscience

Individuals are concerned with upholding their personal principles, and the person no longer makes an appeal to society. Morality is just a matter of the persons conscience regardless of what the society says. Hence, the person may sometimes feel it necessary to deviate from rules when the rules conflict with moral principles.

Societys rules are arbitrary. Different people may interpret them in different ways. The ultimate judge of whether something is moral is a persons own conscience.

Ex. He must steal the medicine because if his wife died he could never forgive himself. When a choice must be made between disobeying a law and saving a life. The higher principle of saving a life must prevail.