Chapter 02 - Relationships in An Ecosystem

Chapter 2 Relationships in an Ecosystem
CHAPTER 2 Relationships in an Ecosystem
Feeding Relationships between Organisms

You should be able to: identify the relative positions of producers and consumers in a food chain, and relate the positions to their modes of feeding; understand the terms herbivore, carnivore and omnivore; identify predator or prey relationships in the selected habitats;
UNIT I LIVING ORGANISMS IN THE ENVIRONMENT
2.1 Feeding Relationships between Organisms

You should be able to: explain the role of decomposers;
construct a food web to include different trophic levels; discuss the interdependence of organisms within a food web; and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of special relationships between organisms.
The Ecosystem
Ecology is the study of relationships between organisms and their environment. The living (biotic) environment includes all the living things that an organism interacts with; The physical (abiotic) environment includes the non-living aspects such as light, temperature and water. All these interacting factors in a specific area make up an ecosystem.
Fig 2.2: Different ecosystems

The Ecosystem
There are many habitats within an ecosystem. A habitat is the place where an organism lives.
Organisms of the same species living in a particular habitat make up a population. All the different populations of the various species living together in a particular habitat make up a community.
Fig 2.4: The different habitats

Fig 2.3: The different populations found in a freshwater pond community

The Ecosystem
All the environmental conditions and resources required for an organism to survive, reproduce and function in a community is termed as the ecological niche. The habitat and ecological niche are not the same. Many different organisms can share the same habitat, but they cannot occupy the same niche, as the niche is unique to a particular species in a community. No two species can occupy exactly the same niche.
The Ecosystem
When shared resources such as light, food, space, oxygen are shared by organisms, then competition results. Competition can arise between members of the same species (e.g. competing for a mate) or between different species (e.g. competing for territory and shelter). Competition affects population size and distribution of species. Members of the same species may occupy different ecological niches and trophic levels at different points in their life cycle avoid competition for resources among the same species e.g. butterflies and caterpillars.
The Ecosystem
The living organisms in any ecosystem are made up of producers, consumers and decomposers.
Producers manufacture organic substances using water, carbon dioxide and energy from light or from chemical reactions. Photoautotrophs use light energy to drive the process called photosynthesis. E.g. green plants, algae and certain bacteria Chemoautotrophs use energy from chemical reactions E.g. in certain bacteria such as nitrifying bacteria that are important in the nitrogen cycle.
The Ecosystem
Consumers are animals that eat other organisms to obtain energy and nutrients. Herbivores are animals that only eat plants and are known as primary consumers. Carnivores are animals that eat other animals. Omnivores eat both plants and animals. Carnivores that feed on herbivores are called secondary consumers and tertiary consumers feed on secondary consumers.
The Ecosystem
Decomposers or detritivores are organisms that feed on dead organisms to obtain energy. The complex compounds are broken down into simpler compounds, thus releasing valuable minerals and nutrients into the soil for the plants. E.g. Bacteria and fungi are decomposers; earthworms, beetles and termites are detritivores. Mould is a species of fungi that play a major role in the decomposition of organic materials. Mould cannot photosynthesise like plants but obtain nutrients by breaking down the organic material where they are found in.
Fig 2.11: Decomposers and Detritivores

Food Chains and Food Webs

Food chains represent the feeding relationships between organisms. A food chain always begins with a producer which is eaten by a primary consumer. The latter which is then eaten by a secondary consumer. Each stage in the food chain is called a trophic level. Producers make up the first trophic level.

Food chains usually do not have more than four trophic levels. This is because energy is lost at each trophic level, thus there is less and less energy available for organisms at the higher trophic levels.
Hence, most food chains consist of only four to five trophic levels as there will be insufficient energy to support an organism at higher trophic levels.
The arrows on the food chain represent the direction in which the organism is being eaten.
Fig 2.12: A simple food chain

Fig 2.14 Food chains found in different habitats


In a particular habitat, organisms are usually involved in more than one food chain. A food web is formed when many food chains link together.
Fig 2.15: A simple food web

Fig 2.16 A complex food web

Inter-Dependence of Organisms and their Environment

Nutritional Interdependence Green plants are the main producers of a food web. They can synthesize organic food substances through photosynthesis. Herbivores feed on plants for nutrition. Carnivores are indirectly dependent on them for their food and energy because they eat the herbivores. If there were no plants in an ecosystem, there would not be any herbivores left to feed the carnivores.

Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Interdependence Living organisms give out carbon dioxide and take in oxygen during respiration. Carbon dioxide is also produced during the decomposition of dead organisms. Plants take in carbon dioxide from the air and give out oxygen during photosynthesis. In this way, the carbon dioxide and oxygen balance in the environment remains relatively constant.

Interdependence in Pollination Many insects such as the butterfly and the bee obtain nectar as food from flowering plants. As they move from flower to flower, the insects transfer pollen grains from one flower to another, thus helping to pollinate the flowering plants so that the plants can reproduce.

Interdependence in Dispersal of Seeds and Fruits Animals aid in the dispersal of seeds and fruits of flowering plants. Seeds may get attached to the bodies of animals and carried away to other places. Animals which eat the fruits cannot digest the seeds and pass them out through the faeces. The seeds which are still able to germinate are thus dispersed to other places.

Living things and the environment are also interdependent. The environment provides living things with energy, materials for food and respiration, space, shelter, and warmth. Activities of organisms affect the environment as well. Decomposers and detritivores feed on the wastes and dead remains of organisms Trees help to keep the land stable, provide shelter for many insects and animals, and keep the environment cool.

Living organisms, as they grow, help to break up rock surfaces which cause further erosion. Processes - respiration, photosynthesis and decomposition which take place in organisms, and human activities such as combustion of fossil fuels - keeps the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the environment at a relatively constant level. Human activities have the greatest effect on the environment.
Special Relationships between Organisms

Predation An animal that feeds on another animal is called a predator and the animal eaten by the predator is called the prey. Predation occurs when a predator kills and eats its prey.
Fig 2.17: The bear is a predator. Fish are the prey of bears.

Predation In a habitat, the relationship between predators and their prey has an effect on their population size. The population size of the predators and their prey fluctuates in a cyclical nature. The average size of the prey population is larger than the predator population. However, there are many other factors involved in an ecosystem (e.g. the presence of other prey for the predator) that can cause the change in their population size.
The effect of predator-prey relationship on their population size is shown in the graph below.
It can be seen from the graph that: An increase in the prey population means more food for the predators and an increase in the predator population. When predators increase in numbers, the prey population is subsequently reduced because of an increase in predation. With less prey available, the predator population decreases. With fewer predators, the prey population increases again.

What are some adaptations that some predator and prey have evolved?
Fig 2.19: This lizard camouflages by blending with the lichen on rocks, while the tortoise has a hard shell to deter would-be predators.

Interactions between predator and prey are often brief. When two different organisms interact with each other for long periods of time, a special relationship develops and is referred to as symbiosis.
Parasitism, commensalism and mutualism are examples of symbiotic relationships.

Parasitism A parasitic relationship is one in which one organism, the parasite, lives off of another organism, the host, harming it and possibly causing death. The parasite lives on or in the body of the host. Common parasites are viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoans, flatworms (tapeworms and flukes), nematodes, insects (fleas, lice), and arachnids (mites).
tapeworm Fungus ringworm
Fig 2.23: Aphids are insects that eat the sap from the plants on which they live. They are parasites to the plant. However, ladybugs which live on these plants will eat the aphids and benefit by getting food, while the plant benefits by being rid of the aphids.

Commensalism A symbiotic relationship where one organism benefits and the other neither benefits nor gets harmed.
Fig 2.25: The sea anemone protects the clown fish from the predators as most fish avoid the poisonous tentacles of the sea anemone. The clown fish have special mucus on their bodies which prevents them from getting stung. They have no effect on the sea anemone.
Fig 2.26: An epiphyte is a plant that grows on another plant for support. It is not parasitic, but uses the host plant for support only. Epiphytic plants have aerial roots that absorb moisture from the air, thus allowing it to develop on the tree.

Mutualism A symbiotic relationship where two organisms of different species work together and benefit from the relationship.
Fig 2.27: The birds obtain food from the ticks and insects found on the body of the ox thus helping the ox to get rid of these parasites.
Fig 2.29: Nitrogen-fixing bacteria found in the root nodules of leguminous plants such as the pea plant help the plant to obtain nitrogen in a process called nitrogen fixation. The plants in turn provide nutrients and shelter for the bacteria.
2.2 Energy Flow Within a Food Chain or Food Web

You should be able to: explain energy flow within a food chain or food web and discuss limitations of food chains in supporting more than four trophic level; construct pyramids of energy, biomass and numbers; and explain the continual re-use of materials in nature.
Energy Flow
The two processes that are important to an ecosystem are:

1) the energy flow through the system, and 2) the cycling of nutrients within the system.
Energy Flow
The 1st source of energy in an ecosystem is the Sun. Producers, mainly made up of plants, capture about 1% of light energy from the sun and convert it into chemical energy during photosynthesis. Energy is used by organisms for respiration, growth, movement and reproduction. Energy not used by the cells is stored and provides food for other consumers. However, not all the energy is used or stored efficiently. Only about 10% of energy from one trophic level is passed on to the next trophic level.
Energy Flow
Energy Flow
At each trophic level, energy is lost to the environment in the following ways: as heat from respiration, in excretory products such as urine, in indigestible material such as faeces, in dead organisms or uneaten body parts.
Energy Flow
Since energy is lost at each trophic level, less and less energy is available for organisms at the higher trophic levels. Hence, most food chains consist of only four to five trophic levels as there will be insufficient energy to support an organism at higher trophic levels.
Energy Flow
Energy lost to the environment cannot be recycled energy flow in an ecosystem does not flow in a cycle and is described as non-cyclic.
The flow of energy in an ecosystem can be summarised in the figure below:
Ecological Pyramids
Ecological pyramids can be constructed to represent the numbers, biomass and energy of the organisms at each trophic level of a food chain. Pyramid of numbers shows the no. of organisms at each trophic level at a particular time Pyramid of biomass shows the dry mass (mass of an organism when completely dried - without water) of organisms at each trophic level at a particular time. Pyramid of energy shows total energy content of organisms at each trophic level over a certain period of time
Ecological Pyramids
There are some disadvantages in representing a food chain with a pyramid of numbers, as the size and the age of the organism are not considered when we are counting the number of organisms present at each trophic level.
This can be seen in the food chain below, where one tree is equated to one caterpillar regardless of its size, thus giving an inaccurate representation of the food chain.
Ecological Pyramids
Measuring biomass of the organisms at each level is a more reliable and accurate representation of a food chain than counting the organisms at each trophic level. Thus the food chain above can be better represented with a pyramid of biomass.
Ecological Pyramids
Pyramids of energy are the most accurate representation of a food chain.
However, collecting such data is difficult and needs to be collected over a period of time, usually a year. As more and more energy is lost at higher trophic levels, a pyramid of energy is always broad at the bottom and narrow towards the top.
Fig 2.36 (C): A pyramid of energy
Cycling of Nutrients
Carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and water are essential nutrients for life. They are returned to the soil when decomposers break down dead organisms. Nutrients are not lost to the environment but are recycled and used again by plants. The flow of nutrients in an ecosystem is thus cyclical, unlike the flow of energy. In a balanced ecosystem, nutrients are continually recycled by physical, chemical and biological processes.
The Carbon Cycle
Carbon is present in the environment in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2).

The carbon cycle is important to ensure there is a continuous supply of carbon dioxide for plants to carry out photosynthesis; keep the amount of carbon dioxide in the environment at a relatively constant level.
The Carbon Cycle These processes release CO2 into the environment: respiration of living organisms, combustion of fossils fuels, decay of dead organisms.
Fossil fuels are natural resources formed by the remains of dead organisms buried millions of years ago. They consist of carbon and hydrogen atoms bonded together. When burned, the bonds break to release large amounts of heat energy and carbon dioxide gas.
The Carbon Cycle
These processes remove CO2 from the environment: photosynthesis of plants storage of carbon compounds in animals storage of carbon compounds in fossil fuels
Fig 2.38: The carbon cycle
The Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen is an important component of proteins, nucleic acids and other nitrogen-containing compounds.
Nitrogen gas makes up about 80% of the atmosphere. Plants take in nitrogen in the form of nitrate ions in the soil through active transport into the root hair cells. Animals obtain nitrogen-containing compounds from the food in their diet.
The nitrogen cycle consists of five main processes:
Nitrogen fixation nitrogen gas is converted into nitrogen-containing compounds by lightning, industrial processes and microorganisms.
Assimilation nitrogen is assimilated in root nodules of some plants or absorbed from soil through root hair cells; animals assimilate nitrogen in the form of protein obtained from the food in their diet.
The nitrogen cycle consists of five main processes: Ammonification ammonia compounds produced from the
breakdown of dead and decaying material by decomposers. Nitrification ammonium compounds are converted first to nitrites, then to nitrates by nitrifying bacteria. Oxygen and energy are required. Denitrification nitrate ions in the soil are converted into gaseous nitrogen by anaerobic denitrifying bacteria. This reduces the amount of nitrogen available in the soil for plants.
Fig 2.39: The nitrogen cycle
Key Concepts
Ecology is the study of relationships between organisms and their environment. The biotic and abiotic factors in an environment make up an ecosystem. Producers are organisms that manufacture organic substances using light energy, water and carbon dioxide in the process called photosynthesis. Consumers are animals that eat other organisms to obtain energy and nutrients. Herbivores, carnivores and omnivores are consumers.
Key Concepts
Decomposers are organisms that break down dead organisms into simpler compounds to obtain energy, thus releasing valuable minerals and nutrients back into the soil for the plants to use. Food chains represent the feeding relationships between organisms. A food web is formed when many food chains link together. In a habitat, the relationship between predators and their prey has an effect on their population size. When two different organisms interact with each other for long periods of time, a special relationship develops and is referred to as symbiosis.
Key Concepts
A parasitic relationship is one in which one organism, the parasite, lives off of another organism, the host, harming it and possibly causing death. Commensalism is a relationship where one organism benefits and the other neither benefits nor is harmed. Mutualism is a relationship where two organisms of different species work together and benefit from the relationship. The first source of energy in an ecosystem is the Sun. Producers capture light energy from the Sun during photosynthesis.
Key Concepts
In a food chain, only about 10% of energy from one trophic level is passed on to the next trophic level. Energy is lost to the environment as heat, in excretory products, indigestible material and in dead organisms or uneaten body parts. Most food chains consist of only four to five trophic levels as there will be insufficient energy to support an organism at higher trophic levels. Energy lost to the environment cannot be recycled and is described as non-cyclic.
Key Concepts
Ecological pyramids can be constructed to represent the numbers, biomass and energy of the organisms at each trophic level of a food chain. Carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and water are essential nutrients for life. The flow of nutrients in an ecosystem is cyclical.

Chapter 02 - Relationships in An Ecosystem

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Chapter 02 - Relationships in An Ecosystem

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Chapter 2 Relationships in an Ecosystem

CHAPTER 2 Relationships in an Ecosystem

Feeding Relationships between Organisms

CHAPTER 2 Relationships in an Ecosystem

2.1 Feeding Relationships between Organisms

CHAPTER 2 Relationships in an Ecosystem

2.1 Feeding Relationships between Organisms

CHAPTER 2 Relationships in an Ecosystem

2.1 Feeding Relationships between Organisms

Fig 2.2: Different ecosystems

CHAPTER 2 Relationships in an Ecosystem

2.1 Feeding Relationships between Organisms

UNIT I LIVING ORGANISMS IN THE ENVIRONMENT

CHAPTER 2 Relationships in an Ecosystem

2.1 Feeding Relationships between Organisms

Fig 2.4: The different habitats

CHAPTER 2 Relationships in an Ecosystem

2.1 Feeding Relationships between Organisms

Fig 2.3: The different populations found in a freshwater pond community

CHAPTER 2 Relationships in an Ecosystem

2.1 Feeding Relationships between Organisms

UNIT I LIVING ORGANISMS IN THE ENVIRONMENT

CHAPTER 2 Relationships in an Ecosystem

2.1 Feeding Relationships between Organisms

UNIT I LIVING ORGANISMS IN THE ENVIRONMENT

CHAPTER 2 Relationships in an Ecosystem

2.1 Feeding Relationships between Organisms

UNIT I LIVING ORGANISMS IN THE ENVIRONMENT

CHAPTER 2 Relationships in an Ecosystem

2.1 Feeding Relationships between Organisms

UNIT I LIVING ORGANISMS IN THE ENVIRONMENT

CHAPTER 2 Relationships in an Ecosystem

2.1 Feeding Relationships between Organisms

UNIT I LIVING ORGANISMS IN THE ENVIRONMENT

CHAPTER 2 Relationships in an Ecosystem

2.1 Feeding Relationships between Organisms

Fig 2.11: Decomposers and Detritivores

CHAPTER 2 Relationships in an Ecosystem

2.1 Feeding Relationships between Organisms

Food Chains and Food Webs

UNIT I LIVING ORGANISMS IN THE ENVIRONMENT

CHAPTER 2 Relationships in an Ecosystem

2.1 Feeding Relationships between Organisms

Food Chains and Food Webs

UNIT I LIVING ORGANISMS IN THE ENVIRONMENT

CHAPTER 2 Relationships in an Ecosystem

2.1 Feeding Relationships between Organisms

Fig 2.12: A simple food chain

CHAPTER 2 Relationships in an Ecosystem

2.1 Feeding Relationships between Organisms

Fig 2.14 Food chains found in different habitats

CHAPTER 2 Relationships in an Ecosystem

2.1 Feeding Relationships between Organisms

Food Chains and Food Webs

Fig 2.15: A simple food web

CHAPTER 2 Relationships in an Ecosystem

2.1 Feeding Relationships between Organisms

Fig 2.16 A complex food web

CHAPTER 2 Relationships in an Ecosystem

2.1 Feeding Relationships between Organisms

Inter-Dependence of Organisms and their Environment

UNIT I LIVING ORGANISMS IN THE ENVIRONMENT

CHAPTER 2 Relationships in an Ecosystem