Programming Fundamental All Chapter

DDPC 1573PROGRAMMING FUNDAMENTAL
Main Reference Hanly and Koffman, Problem Solving and Program Design in C, Fifth Edition, Addison Wesley Reference Joyce Farrell Thomson, Programming Logic and Design, Fifth Edition
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Chapter 1: Overview of Computers and Programming

Objectives
Understand computer components and operations Learn about the steps involved in the programming process Learn about the data hierarchy and file input Use flowchart symbols and pseudocode statements Use and name variables Use a sentinel, or dummy value, to end a program Manage large flowcharts Assign values to variables Recognize the proper format of assignment statements Describe data types Understand the evolution of programming techniques
DDC1023 PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGY
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Chapter 1: Computer Components and Operations

2 major components of computer system: Hardware Software Hardware: equipment, or devices Software: programs that contain instructions for the computer 4 major operations in a computer: Input Processing Output Storage
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Input devices: allow data to enter the computer Mouse, keyboard, scanner Processing: working on the data Organizing data Checking data for accuracy Mathematical or other manipulations on data Central Processing Unit (CPU): hardware that performs the tasks
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Output devices: provide data to the user Printer, monitor, speakers Programming language: special language containing instructions for the computer Visual Basic, Java, C#, C++, COBOL Syntax: rules governing word usage and punctuation in the language
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Machine language: controls the computers on/off circuitry Compiler or interpreter: software that translates programming languages to machine language Program must be free of syntax errors to be run, or executed, on a computer To function properly, the logic must be correct
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What is wrong with this logic for making a cake? Stir Add two eggs Bake at 350 degrees for 45 minutes Add three cups of flour
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Logic errors, or semantic errors, are more difficult to locate than syntax errors Logic for multiplying a number by 2 (includes input, processing, and output statements)
Get input number. Compute calculated answer as inputNumber times 2. Print calculatedAnswer.
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2 storage categories: - internal - external
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- Internal storage: Main memory, random access memory (RAM) Located inside the computer system Volatile: contents are lost when power goes down External storage: Persistent: contents are relatively permanent Floppy drive, hard drive, flash media, magnetic tape Located outside the computer system Non-volatile: contents remain eventhough power goes down
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Chapter 1: Steps Involved in the Programming Process

6 programming phases: Understand the problem Plan the logic Code the program Use software to translate the program to machine language Test the program Put the program into production
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Understanding the Problem May be the most difficult phase Users may not be able to articulate their needs well User needs may be changing frequently Programmers may have to learn the users functional job tasks Failure to understand the problem is the major cause of most project failures
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Planning the Logic Plan the steps that the program will take Use tools such as flowcharts and pseudocode Flowchart: a pictorial representation of the logic steps Pseudocode: Natural language representation of the logic Walk through the logic before coding by desk-checking the logic
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Coding the Program Select the programming language Some languages more efficient for certain tasks All languages handle input, arithmetic processing, output, other standard functions Logic can be executed in any number of languages Write the instructions Planning generally more difficult than coding
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Using Software to Translate the Program into Machine Language Programmers write instructions in high-level languages that resemble a natural language Compilers or interpreters change the programs into a low-level machine language that can be executed Syntax errors are identified by the compiler or interpreter
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Using Software to Translate the Program into Machine Language
Creating an executable program

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Testing the Program Execute it with sample data and check results Identify logic errors and correct them Choose test data carefully to exercise all branches of the logic
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Putting the Program into Production Might mean simply running the program once Process might take months if program is used on regular basis or is part of larger development Train data-entry people and users Change existing data Conversion: entire set of actions organization must take to switch over to new program(s)
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Software Development Method 1 Planning 4 Implementation
Writing the algorithm
2 Analysis 5 Testing Identify data objects Verify the program meets Goal to model properties requirements Determine Input / Output data System and Unit test Constraints on the problem 6 Maintaining 3 Design Maintain the system Decompose into smaller problems Top-down design (divide and conquer) Develop algorithm (Desk check)
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Chapter 1: Interactive Input

Prompt: message displayed on a monitor Asks the user for a response Command prompt: location to type entries to communicate with the operating system Graphical User Interface (GUI): allows users to interact with a program in a graphical environment
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A prompt, response, and output in a command line environment

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A prompt, response, and output in a GUI environment

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Chapter 1: Data Hierarchy and File Input

Data hierarchy: ordering of data types by size Character: single symbol A, 7, $ Field: group of characters forming a single data item Smith Record: a group of related fields Customer record containing name and address fields
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File: a group of related records

Customer file, containing all customer records
Database: collection of related files, called tables, that serve the information needs of the organization
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The data hierarchy

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The EMPLOYEE file represented as a stack of index cards

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Chapter 1: Flowchart Symbols and Pseudocode Statements

Flowchart: pictorial representation of the logic Pseudocode: English-like representation of the logic Example: start
get inputNumber compute calculatedAnswer as inputNumber times 2 print calculatedAnswer
stop
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Input symbol
Processing symbol
Output symbol
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Flowlines: Connect the steps Show the sequence of statements Have arrows to show the direction Terminal symbol (start/stop symbol): Shows the start and end points of the statements Lozenge shape
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Flowchart and pseudocode of program that doubles a number

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Inefficient pseudocode for program that doubles 10,000 numbers
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Flowchart of infinite number-doubling program

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Chapter 1: Name Variables, Assign Values to Variables

Variable: a memory location whose contents can vary; also called an identifier Each programming language has its own rules for naming identifiers, including: Legal characters Maximum length Use of upper- or lowercase Variable name must be a single word, but can be formed from several words rate, interestRate, interest_rate
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Chapter 1: Name Variables, Assign Values to Variables

Choose meaningful names for variables Improves the readability and maintainability of code
Suitability of suggested variable names for an employees last name

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Chapter 1: Ending a Program by Using Sentinel Values

Infinite loop: a sequence of statements that repeats forever with no escape Avoid infinite loops by testing for a predetermined value that means stop processing Decision: testing a value Flowchart decision symbol: a diamond shape with two flowlines, one for Yes and one for No
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Chapter 1: Sentinel, or Dummy Value to End A Program
Flowchart of number-doubling program with sentinel value of 0

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Sentinel value (or dummy value) Does not represent real data Signal to stop Can be used with input from files or from users End-of-file (EOF) marker: Code stored in the file that marks the end of the data Usually used instead of a sentinel value for file input
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Flowchart using eof

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Chapter 1: Manage Large Flowcharts

Flowchart connector symbol: Marks a logic transfer to another location in the flowchart Transfer location can be on the same page or on another page On-page symbol: a circle with a number or letter to identify the matching transfer location Off-page symbol: a square with a pointed bottom, containing page number and a number of letter to identify the matching transfer location
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Chapter 1: Data Types, the Evolution of Programming Techniques

2 basic data types: Text Numeric Numeric data stored by numeric variables Text data stored by string, text, or character variables Constants: Values that do not change while the program is running Have identifiers, and can be used like variables for calculations, but cannot be assigned new values
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Some programming languages implement several numeric data types, such as: Integer: whole numbers only Floating-point: fractional numeric values with decimal points Character or string data is represented as characters enclosed in quotation marks x, color Data types must be used appropriately
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Some examples of legal and illegal assignments

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Chapter 1: Summary
4 major computer operations: Input Processing Output Storage 6 programming phases: Understand the problem Plan the logic Code the program Translate the program to machine language Test the program Deploy the program
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Chapter 1: Summary
Data hierarchy
Character Field Record File Database
Software Development Method

Planning Analysis Design Implementation Testing Maintaining
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Chapter 1: Summary
Flowchart: pictorial representation of program logic Variables: named memory locations that contain values Testing a value involves making a decision Assignment statements: store a value into a variable Assignment operator: the equal (=) sign in most languages 2 major data types: text numeric Procedural programming: focuses on actions performed on data Object-oriented programming: focuses on representing and manipulating objects
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Chapter 2: Understanding Structure Objectives

Learn about the features of unstructured spaghetti code Understand the three basic structures: sequence selection loop Use a priming read Appreciate the need for structure Recognize structure Learn about 3 special structures: case, do-while, and do-until
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Chapter 2: Features of Unstructured Spaghetti Code

Spaghetti code: logically snarled program statements Can be the result of poor program design Spaghetti code programs often work, but are difficult to read and maintain Convoluted logic usually requires more code
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Example: College Admissions Admit students who score >= 90 on admissions test if upper 75 percent of high-school graduating class Admit students who score >= 80 on test if upper 50 percent of high-school graduating class Admit students who score >= 70 on admission test if upper 25 percent of high-school graduating class
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Chapter 2: Three Basic Structures: Sequence, Selection and Loop

Structure: basic unit of programming logic Any program can be constructed from only 3 basic types of structures Sequence
Perform actions in order No branching or skipping any task
Selection (decision)
Ask a question, take one of 2 actions Dual-alternative or single-alternative
Loop
Repeat actions based on answer to a question
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Sequence structure
Sequence structure
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Selection structure
Selection structure
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Dual-alternative if: contains 2 alternatives
if someCondition is true then

do oneProcess else
do theOtherProcess
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Single-alternative if: contains 1 alternative
Single-alternative selection structure

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Single-alternative if
if employee belongs to dentalPlan then deduct $40 from employeeGrossPay Else clause is not required Null case: situation where nothing is done
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Loop structure Repeats a set of actions based on the answer to a question Also called repetition or iteration Question is asked first in the most common form of loop
Loop structure
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Loop structure while testCondition continues to be true do someProcess
while quantityInInventory remains low continue to orderItems
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All logic problems can be solved using only these 3 structures Structures can be combined in an infinite number of ways Stacking: attaching structures end-to-end End-structure statements: indicate the end of a structure The endif statement ends an if-then-else structure The endwhile ends a loop structure
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Structured flowchart and pseudocode

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Any individual task or step in a structure can be replaced by a structure Nesting: placing one structure within another Indent the nested structures statements Block: group of statements that execute as a single unit
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Flowchart and pseudocode showing a sequence nested within a selection

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Selection in a sequence within a selection

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Flowchart and pseudocode for loop within selection within sequence within selection
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Each structure has 1 entry and 1 exit point Structures attach to others only at entry or exit points
The 3 structures
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Chapter 2: Reasons for Structure

Provides clarity Professionalism Efficiency Ease of maintenance Supports modularity
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Chapter 2: Reasons for Structure

Any set of instructions can be expressed in structured format Any task to which you can apply rules can be expressed logically using sequence, selection, loop It can be difficult to detect whether a flowchart is structured
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Chapter 2: Recognize Structure

Is this flowchart structured?
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Is this flowchart structured?
Example 1
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Single process like A is part of an unacceptable structure
At least the beginning of a sequence structure
Untangling Example 1, 1st step

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B begins a selection structure Sequences never have decisions in them Logic never returns to B
Untangling Example 1, 2nd step

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Pull up on the flowline from the left side of B
Untangling Example 1, 3rd step

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Next, pull up the flowline on the right side of B
Untangling Example 1, 4th step

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Pull up the flowline on the left side of D and untangle it from the B selection by repeating C

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Now pull up the flowline on the right side of D

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Bring together the loose ends of D and of B
Finished flowchart and pseudocode for untangling Example 1

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Chapter 2: Three Special Structures: case, do-while, and do-until

Many languages allow 3 additional structures: The case structure The do-while structure The do-until structure
CASE Structure: Decisions with more than 2 alternatives Tests a variable against a series of values and takes action based on a match Nested if-then-else statements will do what a case structure does
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Using nested if-then-else for multiple alternatives
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Flowchart and pseudocode of tuition decisions

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Using a case structure for multiple alternatives
Flowchart and pseudocode of case structure

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do-while and do-until loops Question is asked at the end of the loop structure Loop statements always used at least once
The while loop, which is a pretest loop
Structure of a do-while or dountil loop, which are posttest loops

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do-while: executes as long as the questions answer is Yes or True do-until: executes as long as the questions answer is No or False do wash a dish until all dishes are washed do wash a dish while more dishes remain to be washed
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while loop with question at beginning is called a pretest loop do-while and do-until with question at end are called posttest loops Posttest loop can be replaced with a sequence followed by a pretest while loop pay a bill while there are more bills to pay pay a bill endwhile
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Flowchart and pseudocode for do-while loop

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Flowchart and pseudocode for sequence followed by while loop

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How can this design be made structured?
Unstructured loop
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Repeat the needed step to enforce structure
Sequence and structured loop that accomplish the same tasks as Figure 2-37
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Chapter 2: Summary
Spaghetti code: snarled program logic 3 basic structures: sequence, selection, loop Combined by stacking and nesting Structured techniques promote clarity, professionalism, efficiency, and modularity
Flowchart can be made structured by untangling
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Chapter 2: Summary
case structure: questions with multiple alternatives while loop: a pretest loop asks the question first
while loop statements never execute if the answer is No

do-while and do-until loops: posttest loops that ask the question last do-while and do-until loop statements are always executed at least once Posttest loop can be replaced by a sequence followed by a while loop
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Chapter 3: The Program Planning Process: Documentation and Design

Objectives Learn about documentation Learn about the advantages of modularization Learn how to modularize a program Declare local and global variables and constants Understand the mainline logic for many procedural programs Create hierarchy charts
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Chapter 3: Learn About Documentation

Documentation All supporting material that goes with a program Two major categories: for users and for programmers Usually created by system analysts and/or tech writers May be printed or electronic (Web or CD) End users: people who use computer programs Program Documentation Internal program documentation: comments within code External program documentation: supporting paperwork written before programming begins
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Output Documentation Describes the results the user can see when a program is complete Usually written first Planning done in consultation with the end user After desired output is known, programmer can plan processes needed to produce output Most common types of output: Printed reports Screen output
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Designing Printed Reports Printed reports: designed using a print chart Created using word-processor or design software Printed reports may contain: Detail lines: display data details Heading lines: contain title and column headings Total (or summary) lines: contain statistics or end of report indicators Printed reports may contain only summary information
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Designing Screen Output Program output may appear on a monitor screen In a GUI, user sees a screen and can interact with a mouse or pointing device Output design resembles a sketch of a screen GUI designed to allow user to scroll through records
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Designing Screen Output
Inventory records displayed in a GUI environment
Inventory records displayed in a running program
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Input Documentation Describes what input is available to produce the output File description: Describes data stored in a file Indicates fields, data types, and lengths
Inventory file description

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Input Documentation Input files organized in different ways Field may occupy exactly 15 characters for each record Adding characters to the end of a data field to force it to a specified size is padding the field Some names might be truncated or abbreviated Fields may be delimited Delimiter: character that separates fields Numeric fields may occupy a specified number of bytes
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Completing the Documentation Program documentation may contain: Output design Input description Flowcharts Pseudocode Program code listing User documentation may contain: Manuals Instructional material Operating instructions
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Completing the Documentation User documentation: Written clearly in plain language Usually prepared by system analysts and/or tech writers User documentation usually indicates: How to prepare input Output distribution and interpretation Error message information Run frequency
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Chapter 3: The Advantages of Modularization

Module: Unit of code that performs one small task Called a subroutine, procedure, function, or method Invoke (call) a method is to execute it Calling method invokes the called method Program contains unlimited number of methods Each method can be called unlimited number of times
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Modularization: breaking a large program into modules Advantages of modularization: Provides abstraction Allows multiple programmers to work simultaneously Allows code reuse Makes identifying structures easier
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Modularization Provides Abstraction Focuses on important properties while ignoring nonessential details Avoids low-level details Makes complex tasks look simple High-level programming languages allow English-like vocabulary One statement corresponds to dozens of machine instructions Modules provide another way to achieve abstraction
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Modularization Provides Abstraction
To-do list with abstraction Do laundry Call Aunt Nan Start term paper To-do list without abstraction Pick up laundry basket Put laundry basket in car Drive to laundromat Get out of car with basket Walk into laundromat Set basket down . . .
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Modularization Allows Multiple Programmers to Work on a Problem Commercial programs rarely written by a single programmer Development time is significantly reduced Large programming projects can be divided into modules Modules can be written by different programmers or programming teams
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Modularization Allows You to Reuse Your Work Subroutines that are useful should be used more than once in a program Example: routine that checks the current date Instructions placed in their own module are easy to port to other applications Reusability: the ability to use modules in a variety of applications Reliability: assurance that a module has been tested and proven to function correctly Reliable software saves times and money
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Chapter 3: How to Modularize A Program

Most programs contain a main program Contains the mainline logic Accesses other modules or subroutines Rules for naming modules different for every programming language For this text: Must be one word Should be meaningful Followed by a set of parentheses Corresponds to module naming in Java, C++, C#
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Suggested identifiers for a module that calculates an employees gross pay
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Calling program (or calling module): one that uses another module Flowchart symbol for calling a module: rectangle with bar across the top Flowchart for the module Start symbol: contains module name Stop symbol: contains exit or return
When a module is called, logic transfers to the model When module ends, logic transfers back to the caller
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Sample logic
Logic from left figure using a method

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Logic using two methods

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Method is encapsulated in another method if it is contained in another method Knowing when to break a module into its own subroutines or submodules is an art Best practice: place together statements that contribute to one specific task Functional cohesion: extent to which the statements contribute to the same task
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Chapter 3: Declare Local and Global Variables and Constants

Arguments: data items required by a method Returning a value: data sent back by a method Method must include: Header: includes method identifier, other identifying information Body: contains all statements in the method Return statement: marks the end of the method Returns control to the calling method Data items are visible only within the method in which they are declared
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Program that prints a bill using main program that calls nameAndAddress() method
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Variables and constants are in scope only within method in which they are declared Variables and constants are local to the method Global variables and constants are known to the entire program Variables and constants declared outside any method are declared at the program level Reasons to declare variables globally: Needed in many methods throughout a program Declare classs data fields at class level
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Declaring global variables and constants: violates encapsulation Declaring variables and constants within methods: methods are portable When two or more methods require access to same data, pass the data between methods
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Program that prints a bill with some constants declared globally

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Chapter 3: Mainline Logic for Many Procedural Programs

Mainline logic of most procedural programs follows same general structure: Housekeeping tasks Variable and constant declarations Opening files Main loop tasks Processes that must occur for every data record End-of-job tasks Print footer lines Close open files
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Flowchart and pseudocode of mainline logic for a typical procedural program

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Sample payroll report
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Logic for payroll report

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Chapter 3: Create Hierarchy Charts

Hierarchy chart: Illustrates modules relationships Tells which routines call which other routines Does not tell when or why the modules are called
Hierarchy chart program

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An organizational hierarchy chart
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Billing program hierarchy chart
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Chapter 3: Summary
Documentation: all supporting material for a program Output documentation: includes report designs File description: details data types and lengths of each field of data in the file User documentation: manuals and instructional materials, and operating instructions Modules: smaller, reasonable units of code that provide reusability Subroutines, procedures, functions, methods Modularization: Provides abstraction Allows multiple programmers to work on a problem Makes it easy to reuse work and identify structures
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Chapter 3: Summary
Modules can call other modules Flowchart symbol is a rectangle with a bar across the top Variable declarations define the name and type of the data to be stored Hierarchy chart illustrates modules relationships Common structure for procedural programs: Housekeeping tasks Main loop End-of-job tasks Hierarchy chart illustrates modules relationships
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Chapter 4: Making Decision Objectives

Evaluate Boolean expressions to make comparisons Use the relational comparison operators Learn about AND logic Learn about OR logic Make selections within ranges Learn about precedence when combining AND and OR selections Learn more about the case structure Use a decision table
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Chapter 4: Evaluating Boolean Expressions to Make Comparisons

Dual-alternative (or binary) selection structure: Provides an action for each of 2 possible outcomes
The dual-alternative selection structure

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Single-alternative (or unary) selection structure Action is provided for only 1 outcome
The single-alternative selection structure

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Flowchart and pseudocode for overtime payroll program

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Pseudocode for payroll program with dental insurance determination

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Boolean expression Represents only one of 2 states Evaluates to true or false Every decision in a computer program involves evaluating a Boolean expression Computer circuitry consists of two-state on-off switches Represented by 1 or 0 Every computer decision yields a true-false result
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Chapter 4: Relational Comparison Operators

For any 2 values, 3 types of comparisons: 2 values are equal 1st value greater than the 2nd value 1st value less than the 2nd value Relational comparison operators Express Boolean tests Different languages use different symbols
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Any logical situation can be expressed with only 3 types of comparisons: =, >, and < Operators >= and <= are not necessary, but make code more readable
Not equal operator Most confusing of comparisons Most likely to be different in different languages
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Using a negative comparison

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Using the positive equivalent of the negative comparison in Figure 4-5

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Relational comparisons
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Chapter 4: AND Logic OR Logic

Understanding AND Logic Compound condition Asks multiple questions before an outcome is determined AND decision
Requires that both of 2 tests evaluate to True Requires a nested decision (nested if) Using nested if statements Second selection structure is contained entirely within 1 side of 1st structure else clause paired with last if
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Understanding AND Logic
Flowchart and pseudocode for selection process in revised bonus-determining program

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Nesting AND Decisions for Efficiency When nesting decisions, either selection can come first Performance time can be improved by asking questions in the proper order In an AND decision, first ask the question that is less likely to be true Eliminates as many instances of the 2nd decision as possible Speeds up processing time
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Understanding OR Logic
When you want to take action when 1 or the other of 2 conditions is true
Example: Salespeople get bonus when they have achieved one of two goals: Sell at least five items Sell at least $2,000 in merchandise itemsSold >= ITEMS_MIN? If true, assign $300 bonus
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Writing OR Decisions for Efficiency May ask either question first Both produce the same output, but vary widely in number of questions asked
If first question is true, no need to ask second

In an OR decision first ask the question that is more likely to be true Eliminates as many repetitions as possible of second decision
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Chapter 4: Precedence When Combining AND and OR Selections

Combining Decisions in an AND Selection Conditional AND operator allows you to ask 2 or more questions in a single comparison Each Boolean expression must be true for entire expression to evaluate to true Truth tables describe the truth of an entire expression based on the truth of its parts Short-circuit evaluation: expression evaluated only as far as necessary to determine truth
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Combining Decisions in an OR Selection Conditional OR operator allows you to ask 2 or more questions in a single comparison Only one Boolean expression in an OR selection must be true to produce a result of true Question placed first will be asked first, so consider efficiency Computer can ask only one question at a time
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Combining Decisions in an AND Selection
Truth table for the AND operator
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Combining Decisions in an OR Selection
Truth table for the OR operator

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Combining Decisions in an AND Selection
Using an AND operator and the logic behind it
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Combining Decisions in an OR Selection
Using an OR operator and the logic behind it

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Chapter 4: Case Structure

Provides a series of alternatives based on the value of a single variable
Replaces a series of chained if-else statements Makes code easier to read
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Chapter 4: Case Structure
Flowchart and pseudocode that determines base price for house based on model number using the case structure
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Chapter 4: Decision Table

Managing multiple possible outcomes of multiple decisions can be difficult Decision table: four-part problem-analysis tool Conditions Possible combinations of Boolean values for each condition Possible actions based on the conditions Specific actions that correspond to each Boolean value of each condition
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Sample residence hall assignments report
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Rules for assigning residence halls Students under age 21 who request a hall with quiet study hours: Addams Hall Students under age 21 who do not request a hall with quiet study hours: Grant Hall Students age 21 and over who request a hall with quiet study hours: Lincoln Hall Students age 21 and over who do not request a hall with quiet study hours: Lincoln Hall
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To create a decision table: List all possible conditions Determine the possible Boolean value combinations for each condition # combinations = 2 (number of conditions)
Conditions and possible values for residence hall determination

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To create a decision table: Add rows to list possible outcome actions Choose one required outcome for each combination
Completed decision table for residence hall selection
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Program that assigns a student to a residence hall

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Chapter 5: Looping Objectives

Learn about the advantages of looping Control loops with counters and sentinel values Nest loops Use posttest loops Recognize the characteristics shared by all loops Learn about common loop applications
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Chapter 5: Advantages of Looping

Looping makes computer programming efficient and worthwhile Write one set of instructions to operate on multiple, separate sets of data Loop: structure that repeats actions while some condition continues
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Chapter 5: Advantages of Looping
The while loop
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Chapter 5: Control Loops with Counters and Sentinel Values

As long as a Boolean expression remains true, while loops body executes Must control number of repetitions to avoid an infinite loop Repetitions controlled by Counter Sentinel value
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Using a Definite while Loop with a Counter Three actions make a while loop end correctly: Loop control variable is initialized Prior to entering the loop Loop control variable is tested If result is true, loop body entered Loop control variable must be altered in loop body while expression eventually evaluates to false
Loop control variables altered by: Incrementing Decrementing

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Using a Definite while Loop with a Counter
A while loop that prints Hello four times

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Using a Definite while Loop with a Counter
Definite loop: number of iterations predetermined Also called counted loop Counter: numeric variable used to count number of times an event occurs Loop control variable may be altered by user input Indefinite loop: loop iterates until some condition is true Number of iterations may vary
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Using an Indefinite while Loop with a Sentinel Value
Indefinite loop: loop performed a different number of times each time the program executes 3 crucial steps: Starting value to control the loop must be provided Comparison must be made using the value that controls the loop Within the loop, value that controls the loop must be altered Loop control variable: any variable that determines whether the loop will continue
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Looping bank balance program

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Typical execution of the looping bank balance program

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Crucial steps that must occur in every loop
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Chapter 5: Nested Loops

Nested loops: loops within loops Outer loop: loop that contains the other loop Inner loop: loop that is contained Needed when values of two (or more) variables repeat to produce every combination of values
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Flowchart and pseudocode for AnswerSheet program

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Chapter 5: Posttest Loops

Loop body may never execute in while loop and for loop Use posttest loop when loop body must execute at least once do-until loop do-while loop do-until loop executes until condition is true do-while loop executes until condition is false
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Inner loop from label production program in Figure 5-9

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Label production program using a do-until loop

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Chapter 5: The Characteristics Shared by All Loops

Every logical problem could be solved using only the while loop Other forms are conveniences while loop Loop-controlling question placed at beginning of steps that repeat do-until loop Loop-controlling question placed at end of steps that repeat
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Characteristics of all structured loops: Loop-controlling question must provide entry or exit from repeating structure Loop-controlling question provides the only entry to or exit from the repeating structure Exactly one loop-controlling value Provides only entry to or exit from the loop
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Examples of unstructured loops

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Chapter 5: Common Loop Applications

Using a loop to accumulate totals Examples: Business reports often include totals Telephone bill provides a total List of real estate sold and total value Accumulator: variable that gathers values Similar to a counter Counter increments by one Accumulator increments by some value
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Accumulate total real estate prices Declare numeric variable at beginning Initialize the accumulator to 0 Read each transactions data record Add its value to accumulator variable Read the next record until eof Variables exist only for the life of the application Run the application a second time, variables occupy different memory location
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Month-end real estate sales report

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Flowchart and pseudocode for real estate sales report program

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Using a loop to validate data When prompting a user for data, no guarantee that data is valid Validate data: make sure data falls in acceptable ranges Example: user enters birth month If number less than 1 or greater than 12 Display error message and stop the program Assign default value for the month Reprompt the user for valid input
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Reprompting a user once after an invalid month is entered

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Reprompting a user continuously after an invalid month is entered

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Chapter 5: Summary
When using a loop, write one set of instructions that operates on multiple, separate data Three steps must occur in every loop: Initialize loop control variable Compare variable to some value Alter the variable that controls the loop Nested loops: loops within loops Nested loops maintain two individual loop control variables Alter each at the appropriate time
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Chapter 5: Summary
Use posttest loop when loop body must execute at least one time Control variable evaluated after loop body executes Characteristics of all structured loops: Loop-controlling question provides entry or exit from repeating structure Loop-controlling question provides the only entry or exit from repeating structure Accumulator: variable that gathers values Loops used to ensure user data is valid by reprompting the user
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Chapter 6: Overview of C Objectives

Learn about the C language elements Apply the variable declarations and data types. Understand Input/output functions printf and scanf. Include preprocessor directives #include and #define Use assignment statement with arithmetic operators Learn about the general form of a C program Apply the formatting numbers in program output Know the interactive mode Identify the common programming errors
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Chapter 6: C Language Elements

Preprocessor directives
Main function
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Chapter 6: Variable Declarations and Data Types

Variables: values stored in variables can changes Variables Declarations: What kind of information will be stored in each variable How that information will be represented in memory
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Chapter 6: Variable Declarations and Data Types

Variable declaration according to its data type. EXAMPLES: int count,large; double x, y, z; char first_initial; char ans;
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Chapter 6: Executable Statements

Program in Memory Assignment Statements Input/Output Operations and Functions
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Program in Memory
Memory(a) Before and (b) After Execution of a Program

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Assignment Statements
kms = KMS_PER_MILE * miles;
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Before and After Assignment of a variable
sum = sum + item;
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Input and Output Operations and Functions Operations Functions #include <stdio.h> C function: printf C function: scanf
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Function (printf)
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Function (scanf)
scanf("%lf", &miles);
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Function (scanf) scanf("%c%c%c", &letter_1, &letter_2, &letter_3 );
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Chapter 6: General Form of a C program
Preprocessor directives: #include, #define Any used variable should be declared before the usage.
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Chapter 6: Formatting numbers in program output

All numbers are displayed in their default format, unless the program specifies otherwise.
Value Format Display Value Format Display
234
234 234 234
%4d
%5d %6d %1d
#234
##234 ###234 234
-234
-234 -234 -234
%4d
%5d %6d %2d
-234
#-234 ##-234 -234
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Value Format Display #3.14 3.14 3.142 0.12 Value 3.14159 3.14159 3.14159 -.006 Format Display %4.2f %5.1f %8.5f %4.2f 3.14 ##3.1 #3.14159 -0.01 3.14159 %5.2f 3.14159 %3.2f 3.14159 %5.3f .1234 %4.2f
-.006
-.006
%8.3f
%.3f
##-0.006 -.006
-0.006
%8.5f
-0.00600
-3.1416
-3.14159 %.4f
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Chapter 6: Interactive mode

A mode of program execution in which the user responds to prompts by entering (typing in) data. scanf(%lf, &x); printf(Your mark is: %.2f, x); If user entered 85.355 Output: Your mark is: 85.36
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Chapter 6: Common Programming Errors

Syntax Errors Run-Time Errors Undetected Errors Logic Errors
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Syntax error occurs when the code violates grammar rules of C and is detected by the compiler.
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Run-time error occurs when the program directs the computer to perform an illegal operation (e.g., divide by zero).
temp=0 divide by zero
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A Program That Produces Incorrect Results Due to & Omission
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Chapter 6: Summary
Every C program has preprocessor directives and a main function. The main function contains variable declarations and executable statements. Variable names must begin with a letter or an underscore and consist of letters, digits, and underscore symbols. A reserved word cannot be used as an identifier.
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Chapter 7: Data Types, Operators and Simple Functions in C

Objectives
Understand the data types Able to write program with arithmetic operators Learn about the mixed-type assignment statement Know how to use the expression with multiple operators
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Chapter 7: Data Types

int Range : -32767 ~ + 32767 --- in ANSI C -10500 435 +15 -25 32767 double
char A a z
* ?
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Chapter 7: Arithmetic Operators
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Execution of Multiple Operators Can be expressed as an Evaluation Tree.
area = PI * radius * radius;
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Step by Step Expression Evaluation
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Evaluation Tree
v = (p2 - p1) / (t2 - t1);
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Evaluation Tree
z - (a + b / 2) + w * -y
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Chapter 7: Writing Mathematical Formulas in C

You may encounter two problems in writing a mathematical formula in C. First, multiplication often can be implied in a formula by writing two letters to be multiplied next to each other. In C, you must state the * operator For example, 2a should be written as 2 * a. Second, when dealing with division we often have:
This should be coded as (a + b) / (c + d).
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Chapter 7: Library functions

Function Header File abs(x) cos(x) exp(x) pow(x, y) sqrt(x) <stdlib.h> <math.h> <math.h> <math.h> <math.h> Description Return the absolute value of x Return the cosine of angle x Return the value of ex Return the value of xy Return the squre root of x
For I/O library functions (printf, scanf) To use them, have to use #include <stdio.h> For Mathematical Functions (sqrt, pow, sin, cos) To use them, have to use #include <math.h>
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Chapter 7: Library functions
Example: Display the square root of 2 numbers provided as the input data (first and second) and the square root of their sum.
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Chapter 7: Summary
Cs data types enable the compiler to determine how to store a particular value in memory and what operations can be performed on that value. Three standard data types are int, double, and char. The data type of each variable must be declared. Assignment statements are used to perform computations and store results in memory. Function calls are used to get data (scanf) and to display values stored in memory (printf).
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Chapter 8: Selection Structures: If and Switch Statement In C

Objectives
Learn about the control structure Understand the conditions Apply the if statement with compound statements Use decision steps in algorithms Learn about the nested if statements and multiple alternative decisions Learn about the switch Statement
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Chapter 8: Control Structures

Control Structures control the flow of execution Three kinds of execution flow: Sequence
The execution of the program is sequential Selection A control structure which chooses alternative to execute Repetition A control structure which repeats a group of statements.
We will focus on the selection control structure this week.
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Chapter 8: Conditions
A program may choose among alternative statements by testing the value of key variables. if (your_grade > 60) printf(you are passed!)
Condition is an expression that is either false (represented by 0) or true (represented by 1). your_grade > 60
Conditions may contain relational or equality operators.
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Relational and Equality Operators
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Sample Conditions
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Logical Operators To form more complicated conditions by the three logical operators && (and) || (or) ! (not) Logical Expressions is an expression which uses one or more logical operators, e.g., salary < MIN_SALARY || dependents > 5 temperature > 90.0 && humidity > 0.9 !(0 <= n && n<= 100)
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Operator Precedence An operators precedence determines its order of evaluation.
- x y * z x + y < min + max
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Evaluation Tree & Step-by-Step Evaluation
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Short Circuit Evaluation Stopping evaluation of a logical expression as soon as its value can be determined. e.g. a && b must be false if a is 0.
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Writing English Conditions in C
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Comparing Characters
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Complement a logical expression with the symbol ! just change its operator
item == SENT !(item == SENT) item != SENT !(a <= b)
a>b
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Chapter 8: The if Statement

Syntax if (condition) statement ; else statement ; Ex-1.
if (rest_heart_rate > 56 ) printf(keep up your exercise program!\n); else printf(Your heart rate is in excellent health\n);
Ex-2.
if (x != 0.0) product = product * x;
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Chapter 8: If Statement with Compound Statements
if (condition) { true task } else { false task }
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Chapter 8: Decision Steps in Algorithms

Select from a choice of actions Refer slide 240 and 241 for the algorithms in making decision
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Chapter 8: Nested if Statements and Multiple Alternative Decisions

An if statement with another if statement as its true task or its false task
Dangling Else
if (x > 0) if (y > 0) a = a + 1; else b = b + 1;
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Nested if Example: Road Sign Decision Process
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Road Sign Decision Process
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Multiple-Alternative Decision
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Multiple-Alternative Decision Example
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Chapter 8: The switch Statement
When the selection is based on the value of a single variable or of a simple expression (called the controlling expression).
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Chapter 8: The switch Statement

Example of a switch Statement
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Chapter 8: Summary
Use if statement or switch statement to code decision steps in C. Using the relational operators (<, <=, >, >=) and equality operators (==, !=) to compare variables and constants Using the logical operators (&& (and), || (or), !(not)) to form more complex conditions Nested if statements are common in C and are used to represent decisions with multiple alternatives. Programmers use indentation and the multiple-alternative decision form when applicable to enhance readability of nested if statements. The switch statement implements decisions with more than 2 alternatives, where the alternative selected depends on the value of a variable or expression (the controlling expression). The controlling expression can be type int or char, but not type double.
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Chapter 9: Repetition and Loop Statement in C

Objectives Learn about the repetition in programs Count loops and the while statement Compute a sum or a product in a loop Understand the for and do-while statement Learn about the conditional loops: counter-controlled, sentinel-controlled and flag-controlled Design the loop
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Chapter 9: Repetition in Programs

In most commercial software, you can repeat a process many times. When using an editor program, you can move the cursor to a program line and perform as many edit operations as you need to. Loop is a control structure that repeats a group of steps in a program. Three C loop control statements while for do-while
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Chapter 9: Counting Loops and the while Statement

Counter-controlled loop (or counting loop) A loop whose required number of iterations can be determined before loop execution begins. The syntax
while (loop repetition condition) statement;

Loop repetition condition: the condition that controls loop repetition. Infinite loop: a loop that executes forever
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Example
count_emp = 0; /* no employees processed yet */ while (count_emp < 7) { /* test value of count_emp */ printf("Hours> "); scanf("%d", &hours); printf("Rate> "); scanf("%lf", &rate); pay = hours * rate; printf("Pay is $%6.2f\n", pay); count_emp = count_emp + 1; /* increment count_emp */ } printf("\nAll employees processed\n");
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Flowchart for a while Loop

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Chapter 9: Computing a Sum or a Product in a Loop

Loops often accumulate a sum or a product by repeating an addition or multiplication operation. Accumulator A variable used to store a value being computed in increments during the execution of a loop.
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Example
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Compound Assignment Operators
C provide special assignment operators variable op = expression;
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Chapter 9: The for Statements

Three loop control components with the loop body. Initialization of the loop control variable, Test of the loop repetition condition, and Change (update) of the loop control variable. The for statement in C supplies a designed place for each of these three components.
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Increment and Decrement Operators
The increment (i.e., ++) or decrement (i.e., --) operators are the frequently used operators which take only one operand. for(int i=0; i<100; i++) {} for(int i=100; i>0; i--) {}
Side effect: the value of its operand is incremented/decremented by one.
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Prefix and Postfix Increments The value of the expression in which the ++/-- operator is used depends on the position of the operator.
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Example: Factorial Function
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Inc. and Dec. Other Than 1
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Chapter 9: Conditional Loops: counter-controlled, sentinel-controlled and flag-controlled

In many programming situations, you will not be able to determine the exact number of loop repetitions before loop execution begins.
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Chapter 9: Loop Design

Problem-Solving Questions for Loop Design What are the inputs? What are the outputs? Is there any repetition? Do I know in advance how many time steps will be repeated? How do I know how long to keep repeating the steps? Sentinel-Controlled Loops Endfile-Controlled Loops Infinite Loops on Faulty Data
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Sentinel-Controlled Loops
One way to do this is to instruct the user to enter a unique data value, called a sentinel value, after the last data item.
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Endfile-Controlled Loops A data file is always terminated by an endfile character that can be detected by the scanf and fscanf functions.
EOF stands for the endfile character.
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Example of Endfile-Controlled Loops
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Infinite Loops on Faulty Data 70 7o Detect faulty data
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Chapter 9: Nested Loops

Consist of an outer loop with one or more inner loops.
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Chapter 9: The do-while Statement

When we know that a loop must execute at least one time.
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Chapter 9: Summary
Repetition and Loop Statements Counter-Controller Loop Sentinel-Controller Loop Endfile-Controller Loop Input Validation Loop General Conditional Loop while, for, and do-while Compound Assignment Operators
265

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DDPC 1573PROGRAMMING FUNDAMENTAL

Chapter 1: Overview of Computers and Programming

Chapter 1: Computer Components and Operations

Chapter 1: Computer Components and Operations

DDC1023 PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGY

Chapter 1: Computer Components and Operations

DDC1023 PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGY

Chapter 1: Computer Components and Operations

DDC1023 PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGY

Chapter 1: Computer Components and Operations

DDC1023 PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGY

Chapter 1: Computer Components and Operations

Chapter 1: Computer Components and Operations

DDC1023 PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGY

Chapter 1: Computer Components and Operations

Chapter 1: Steps Involved in the Programming Process

DDC1023 PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGY

Chapter 1: Steps Involved in the Programming Process

DDC1023 PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGY

Chapter 1: Steps Involved in the Programming Process

DDC1023 PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGY

Chapter 1: Steps Involved in the Programming Process

DDC1023 PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGY

Chapter 1: Steps Involved in the Programming Process

DDC1023 PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGY

Chapter 1: Steps Involved in the Programming Process

Creating an executable program

Chapter 1: Steps Involved in the Programming Process

DDC1023 PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGY

Chapter 1: Steps Involved in the Programming Process

DDC1023 PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGY

Chapter 1: Steps Involved in the Programming Process

Chapter 1: Interactive Input

DDC1023 PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGY

Chapter 1: Interactive Input

A prompt, response, and output in a command line environment

Chapter 1: Interactive Input

A prompt, response, and output in a GUI environment

Chapter 1: Data Hierarchy and File Input

DDC1023 PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGY

Chapter 1: Data Hierarchy and File Input

File: a group of related records

DDC1023 PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGY

Chapter 1: Data Hierarchy and File Input

The data hierarchy

Chapter 1: Data Hierarchy and File Input

The EMPLOYEE file represented as a stack of index cards

Chapter 1: Flowchart Symbols and Pseudocode Statements

DDC1023 PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGY

Chapter 1: Flowchart Symbols and Pseudocode Statements

DDC1023 PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGY

Chapter 1: Flowchart Symbols and Pseudocode Statements

DDC1023 PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGY

Chapter 1: Flowchart Symbols and Pseudocode Statements

Flowchart and pseudocode of program that doubles a number

Chapter 1: Flowchart Symbols and Pseudocode Statements

Inefficient pseudocode for program that doubles 10,000 numbers

DDC1023 PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGY

Chapter 1: Flowchart Symbols and Pseudocode Statements

Flowchart of infinite number-doubling program

Chapter 1: Name Variables, Assign Values to Variables

DDC1023 PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGY

Chapter 1: Name Variables, Assign Values to Variables