LNB 21103 ADV.

SHIP RESISTANCE &

PROPULSION
Compiled by : Samsol Azhar Zakaria
1
SHIP RESISTANCE
PART 1
1.0 TYPES OF RESISTANCE
The resistance of a ship at given speed is the
fluid force acting on the ship in such a way as to
oppose its motion.
The total resistance , RT can be split into a
number of different components: which a variety
of causes and which interact one with the other
in an extremely complicated way.
In order to deal with resistance in a practical way,
it is necessary to consider the total resistance in
a practical way; it is necessary to consider the
total resistance as being made up of components
which can be combined in different way.
2
COMPONENTS OF SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OF
SHIPS
The ship actually moves at the same time
through two fluids, water and air, with widely
different density.
While the lower part of the hull is moving
through water, the upper part is moving through
air. Like moving in the water, the upper part of
the ship moving in the air is also subject to the
same types of forces.
Summary:
Water resistance (submerged part of a hull)
Air resistance (upper part of hull & superstructure)


3


4
COMPONENTS OF SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OF SHIPS
TOTAL RESISTANCE
5
TOTAL RESISTANCE
6
TOTAL SHIP RESISTANCE
7
8
Total Hull Resistance (cont)
Coefficient of Total Hull Resistance
- Non-dimensional value of total resistance

5 . 0
2
S V
R
C
s
T
T

=
hull submerged the on area surface wetted
ship of Speed
density Fluid
resistance hull Total
water calm in resistance hull total of t Coefficien
=
=
=
=
=
S
V
R
C
S
T
T

dimension - non
lb

2
2
4
2
:
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

f t
s
f t
f t
s lb
1.1 FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE, RF
The frictional resistance is the component of
resistance obtained by integrating the tangential
stresses over the wetted surface of the ship in the
direction of motion and on the specific frictional
resistance coefficient CF.
The friction increases with fouling of the hull, i.e. by
the growth of, i.a. algae, sea grass and barnacles.
RF, represents a considerable part of the ships
resistance, often some 70-90% of the ships total
resistance for low speed ships (bulk carriers and
tankers), and sometimes less than 40% for high
speed ships (cruise liners and passenger ships)
RF = CF(1/2V
2
)S
9
FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE
Frictional resistance in general can be
summarized, which were dependant on:-
The area of the surface.
The type of surface.
The length of the surface.
The density of the liquid.
CF depends on :-
Nature of flow
Reynolds number
Form of surface
Character and condition of surface

10
PLANK EXPERIMENT W.FROUDE (1870)

11
FROUDES SKIN-FRICTION COEFFICIENT -2D

12
LAMINAR & TURBULENT 2D

13
SCHOENHERR (1940S)

14
FRICTION LINE

15
EXTRAPOLATION OF MODEL -2D & 3D EFFECT

16
17
Coefficient of Viscous Resistance
Viscous Flow around a ship
Real ship : Turbulent flow exists near the bow.
Model ship : Studs or sand strips are attached at the bow
to create the turbulent flow.
18
Page 14 fig 3.4
19
Page 15 fig 3.5
20
Coefficient of Viscous Resistance (cont)
Coefficients of Viscous Resistance
- Non-dimensional quantity of viscous resistance
- It consists of tangential and normal components.
F F
KC C + = + =
normal tangential V
C C C
Tangential Component :
- Tangential stress is parallel to ships hull and causes
a net force opposing the motion ; Skin Friction
- It is assumed can be obtained from the experimental
data of flat plate.

F
C
flow
ship
bow
stern
F
C
21
Coefficient of Viscous Resistance (cont)
v
S
n
n
F
F V
LV
R
R
C
C C
=

=
=

) 2 (log
075 . 0


2
10
of Component Tangential
Semi-empirical
equation
water salt for
water fresh for






/s ft 10 1.2791
/s ft 10 1.2260
/s) (ft Viscosity Kinematic
) Speed(ft/s Ship
(ft) L
Number Reynolds
2 5 -
2 5 -
2
pp
=
=
=
=
=
=
v
S
n
V
L
R
22
Coefficient of Viscous Resistance (cont)
Tangential Component (contd)
- Relation between viscous flow and Reynolds number
Laminar flow : I n laminar flow, the fluid flows in layers
in an orderly fashion. The layers do not mix transversely
but slide over one another.
Turbulent flow : I n turbulent flow, the flow is chaotic and
mixed transversely.
Laminar Flow
Turbulent Flow
Flow over
flat plate
5
10 5 < about R
n
5
10 5 > about R
n
23
Normal Component
- Normal component causes a pressure distribution along the
underwater hull form of ship
- A high pressure is formed in the forward direction opposing
the motion and a lower pressure is formed aft.
- Normal component generates the eddy behind the hull.
- It is affected by hull shape.
Fuller shape ship has larger normal component than slender
ship.
Full ship
Slender ship
large eddy
Coefficient of Viscous Resistance (cont)
small eddy
24
Normal Component (contd)
- It is calculated by the product of Skin Friction with Form Factor.
2
3
) (
) (
) ( ) ( ) (
) (ft
19 K
K


|
|
.
|

\
| V
=
=
=
=
f t L
f t B
f t T f t B f t L
C
C K C
F
F v
Factor Form
Coeff. Friction Skin
of Component Normal
Coefficient of Viscous Resistance (cont)
25
2
3
) (
) (
) ( ) ( ) (
) (ft
19 K
|
|
.
|

\
| V
=
f t L
f t B
f t T f t B f t L
F F
C K C + = + =
normal tangential V
C C C
2
10
) 2 (log
075 . 0

=
n
F
R
C
Summary of Viscous Resistance Coefficient
water salt for
water fresh for


/s ft 10 1.2791
/s ft 10 1.2260
/s) (ft Viscosity Kinematic
) Speed(ft/s Ship
(ft) L
Number Reynolds
2 5 -
2 5 -
2
pp
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
v
v
S
n
S
n
V
L
R
LV
R K= Form Factor
26
Reducing the Viscous Resistance Coeff.
- Method :
I ncrease L while keeping the submerged volume constant
1) Form Factor K + Normal component KC
F
+
Slender hull is favorable. ( Slender hull form will create
a smaller pressure difference between bow and stern.)
2) Reynolds No. Rn | CF + KC
F
+

Summary of Viscous Resistance Coefficient
1.2 RESIDUARY RESISTANCE, RR
In general, the greater part of the RR of
merchant ships will be wave making resistance.
Residual resistance RR comprises wave
resistance and eddy resistance. Wave
resistance refers to the energy loss caused by
waves created by the vessel during its
propulsion through the water, while eddy
resistance refers to the loss caused by flow
separation which creates eddies, particularly at
the aft end of the ship.

27
TRANSVERSE WAVE INTERFERENCE
Waves when a submerged body travels
through a fluid , pressure variations are
created around the body.
28
29
Wave-Making Resistance
Transverse wave System
It travels at approximately the same speed as the ship.
At slow speed, several crests exist along the ship length
because the wave lengths are smaller than the ship length.
As the ship speeds up, the length of the transverse wave
increases.
When the transverse wave length approaches the ship length,
the wave making resistance increases very rapidly.
This is the main reason for the dramatic increase in
Total Resistance as speed increases.
30
Wave-Making Resistance (cont)
Transverse wave System
Wave Length
Wave
Length
Slow
Speed
High
Speed


Vs < Hull Speed
Vs ~ Hull Speed
Hull Speed : speed at which the transverse wave length equals
the ship length.
(Wavemaking resistance drastically increases above hull speed)
WAVE MAKING RESISTANCE, RW
An ideal fluid with no viscosity- DAlemberts
Paradoxon.
31
32
KEVIN WAVE PATTERN
The Kelvin wave is a mathematical form of the wave system create d
by travelling pressure point source at the free surface. (pg 126-132)
At free surface, a typical wave pattern is produced and radiated
downstream.
Wave pattern consist of divergent & tranverse waves
Deep water: the wave pattern limited to a wedge-shaped region with
a half-angle of 19.5
o
Shallow water : the half-angle widen to 90
o

Page 29 fig 3.13
33
34
Wave-Making Resistance
Typical Wave Pattern
Bow divergent wave Bow divergent wave
Transverse wave
L
Wave Length
Stern divergent wave
WAVE SYSTEM INTERFERENCE
Page 30 , fig 3.15

35
Page 31 , fig 3.16

36
37
38
39
40
41
Divergent Wave System
It consists of Bow and Stern Waves.
Interaction of the bow and stern waves create the Hollow or
Hump on the resistance curve.
Hump : When the bow and stern waves are in phase,
the crests are added up so that larger divergent wave systems
are generated.
Hollow : When the bow and stern waves are out of phase,
the crests matches the trough so that smaller divergent wave
systems are generated.
Wave-Making Resistance (cont)
42
Calculation of Wave-Making Resistance Coeff.
Wave-making resistance is affected by
- beam to length ratio
- displacement
- hull shape
- Froude number
The calculation of the coefficient is far difficult and inaccurate
from any theoretical or empirical equation.
(Because mathematical modeling of the flow around ship
is very complex since there exists fluid-air boundary,
wave-body interaction)
Therefore model test in the towing tank and Froude expansion
are needed to calculate the Cw of the real ship.
Wave-Making Resistance (cont)
43
Reducing Wave Making Resistance
1) I ncreasing ship length to reduce the transverse wave
- Hull speed will increase.
- Therefore increment of wave-making resistance of longer
ship will be small until the ship reaches to the hull speed.
- EX :
FFG7 : ship length 408 ft Which ship requires more
hull speed 27 KTS horse power at 35 KTS?
CVN65 : ship length 1040 ft
hull speed 43 KTS
Wave-Making Resistance (cont)
44
Reducing Wave Making Resistance (contd)
2) Attaching Bulbous Bow to reduce the bow divergent wave
- Bulbous bow generates the second bow waves .
- Then the waves interact with the bow wave resulting in
ideally no waves, practically smaller bow divergent waves.
- EX :
DDG 51 : 7 % reduction in fuel consumption at cruise speed
3% reduction at max speed.
design &retrofit cost : less than $30 million
life cycle fuel cost saving for all the ship : $250 mil.
Tankers & Containers : adopting the Bulbous bow
Wave-Making Resistance (cont)
45
Bulbous Bow
Wave-Making Resistance (cont)
46
1.3 EDDY RESISTANCE, RE
Eddy resistance refers to the loss caused by
flow separation which creates eddies,
particularly at the aft end of the ship.
The residual resistance normally represents 8-
25% of the total resistance for low-speed ships,
and up to 40-60% for high-speed ships.
Incidentally, shallow waters can also have great
influence on the residual resistance, as the
displaced water under the ship will have greater
47
1.4 AIR RESISTANCE, RA
Air resistance is meant the resistance experienced by
the above water part of the main hull and the
superstructure owing to the motion of the ship through
the air.
This resistance depends on the ships speed and shape
of the upper structures.
At full speed with no wind it would be expected that the
air resistance would be approximately 2% to 4 % of the
total resistance acting on the ship.
For container ships in head wind, the air resistance can
be as much as 10%.
but is sometimes based on 90% of the dynamic
pressure of air with a speed of V,thus:,
RA = 0.90 air V
2
Aair
where air is the density of the air, and Aair is the cross-
sectional area of the vessel above the water.


48
49
Other Type of Resistances
Appendage Resistance
- Frictional resistance caused by the underwater appendages
such as rudder, propeller shaft, bilge keels and struts
- 2~24% of the total resistance in naval ship.
Steering Resistance
- Resistance caused by the rudder motion.
- Small in warships but troublesome in sail boats
Added Resistance
- Resistance due to sea waves which will cause the ship
motions (pitching, rolling, heaving, yawing).

50
Other Resistances
Increased Resistance in Shallow Water
- Resistance caused by shallow water effect
- Flow velocities under the hull increases in shallow water.
: Increment of frictional resistance due to the velocities
: Pressure drop, suction, increment of wetted surface area
Increases frictional resistance
- The waves created in shallow water take more energy from
the ship than they do in deep water for the same speed.
Increases wave making resistance
THE END
51
LNB 21103 ADV. SHIP RESISTANCE &
PROPULSION
Compiled by : Samsol Azhar Zakaria
52
SHIP RESISTANCE
PART 2
Ship Resistance
The problem was investigated by William Froude
1870s
RT = RF + RR
Thus, PE = RT x V (Nm/s)
= RT x V (kW)
1000
R.E Froude reassessed and his resistance data
presented in equation form;
R
]
= ]SV
1.825
S( m2) , V(m/s), and R
]
in Newtons . It is noted that the
value of ] decreases with increase in the length of ship.

Ship Resistance
By subtracting these calculate value of RF from
appropriate measure value of RT (R
R
= R
T
- R
F
),
then he found the plotting value of residuary
resistance per ton of displacement R
R
/A to a
base of speed / length ratio , V/\L ( V in knots
and L in ft).
This led to famous Law of Comparison
which is neatly expressed in the form
R
R
A when V \L , thus R
R
/A = ](V/\L)
Ship Resistance

Ship Resistance
With rapid increase in both lengths and
speeds and an allowance for roughness
based on hull surface of the 1870s. For
these reason the value of friction resistance
using Froudes Methods have been
abandoned and were replace in 1950s by a
method based on work by Reynolds, Kelvin,
ITTC etc.

Fundamental Basis of Ship Model Testing
Model Testing- will be value ,only the result
can be applied with some certainty to the
prediction of the resistance and power of the
full scale ship.
The resistance of a model or ship is usually
measured by the force which would
necessary to tow her through smooth water,
and the power so expended is called
effective horse power(EHP)

Fundamental Basis of Ship Model Testing
How we can use the total measured resistance of
the model, involving as it does all these different
type of resistance , to calculate that of the full sized
ship?
By assuming that the resistance of a model moving
on the surface a real fluid depends on certain
properties of the fluid the size of the model as
denoted by some characteristic dimension, and
the speed of motion, the theory of dimensions may
be used to find the form of the parameters which
must be held constant in any change of scale in
order that the flow pattern may geometrically
similar.

Fundamental Basis of Ship Model Testing
Let,
R = Resistance,
= mass density
V = velocity of hull
L = length of the hull
= viscosity of fluid
g = gravity acceleration
P = pressure per unit area at any point in fluid

Dimension Analysis
If we assume R is a function of these
quantities and apply the theory of dimensions
we find that:-
R/ V
2
L
2
= ][VL/ , V
2
/gL, P/ V
2
](1)

(refer to additional note 1 and 2)
Tefler Diagram

Law of Comparison
Froude Law of Comparison
(R
R
/A ) m = (R
R
/A) s ;
CR m = CR s
Cw m = Cw s
at corresponding speed.
Law of Comparison
When using physical model, the result have
to be transferred the model scale to full
scale.
Therefore, it is necessary to have or state
some laws of comparison in order to make
this transfer .
The following condition must be fullfill:-
Geometrical similarity
Kinematic similarity
Dynamic Similarity
Law of Comparison

i. Geometric similitude, which requires that all length
ratios be the same. This is the concept behind a scale
model.

ii. Kinematic similitude, which requires that the flow
field around the model and prototype have scaled
magnitudes and identical directions at the
corresponding locations. The ratios between velocities
in the model have to be equal to the ratios between the
corresponding velocities in the full-scale ship.

iii. Dynamic similitude, which requires that the forces
associated with the fluid motion around both model and
prototype have scaled magnitudes and identical
directions at the corresponding locations.
65
Basic Theory Behind Ship Modeling
Modeling a ship
- It is not possible to measure the resistance of the full-scale ship
- The ship needs to be scaled down to test in the tank but
the scaled ship (model) must behave in exactly same way
as the real ship.
- How do we scale the prototype ship ?
- Geometric and Dynamic similarity must be achieved.
?
Dimension
Speed
Force
prototype
Model
prototype ship
model ship
66
Basic Theory behind Ship Modeling
Geometric Similarity
- Geometric similarity exists between model and
prototype if the ratios of all characteristic dimensions
in model and prototype are equal.
- The ratio of the ship length to the model length is typically
used to define the scale factor.
Volume :
Area :
:






Factor Scale
3
3
3
2
2
2
) (f t
) (f t
) (f t S
) (f t S
(f t) L
(f t) L

M
S
M
S
M
S
V
V
=
=
=
=

Length
Model M
shi scale full S
:
p :
67
Basic Theory behind Ship Modeling
Dynamic Similarity
- Dynamic Similarity exists between model and prototype
if the ratios of all forces in model and prototype are the
same.
- Total Resistance : Frictional Resistance+ Wave Making+Others
S
M
S M
M
S
S
M
S M
M
M
S
S
M
M M
S
S S
nM nS nM nS
n W n V
L
L
V V
L
L
v
v
V V
gL
V
gL
V
v
V L
v
V L
F F R R
F f C R f C
= =
= =
= =
= =
,
,

) ( ), (
,
68
Basic Theory behind Ship Modeling
Dynamic Similarity (contd)
- Both Geometric and Dynamic similarity cannot be achieved
at same time in the model test because making both Rn and
Fn the same for the model and ship is not physically possible.
) ( 1
100
10
) ( 10

kts
f t
f t
kts
L
L
V V
S
M
S M
=
=
=
) ( 100
) (assume
10
100
) ( 10
kts
v v
f t
f t
kts
L
L
v
v
V V
S M
M
S
S
M
S M
=
= =
=
Example
Ship Length=100ft, Ship Speed=10kts, Model Length=10ft
Model speed to satisfy both geometric and dynamic similitude?
69
Basic Theory behind Ship Modeling
Dynamic Similarity (contd)
- Choice ?
Make Fn the same for the model.
Have Rn different
Incomplete dynamic similarity
- However partial dynamic similarity can be achieved by
towing the model at the corresponding speed
- Due to the partial dynamic similarity, the following
relations in forces are established.
WS WM
C C =
VS VM
C C =
70
Basic Theory behind Ship Modeling
Corresponding Speeds
M
M
S
S
nM nS
gL
V
gL
V
F F = = ,
- Example :
Ship length = 200 ft, Model length : 10 ft
Ship speed = 20 kts, Model speed towed ?
kts kts V
L L
V
L
L
V V
S
M S
S
S
M
S M
47 . 4
20
1
20
1

/
1
= = =
= =

(ft) L
(ft/s) V
(ft) L
(ft/s) V
M
M
S
S
=
1kt.=1.688 ft/s
71
Basic Theory behind Ship Modeling
Modeling Summary
A W F A W V T
C C K C C C C C + + + = + + = ) 1 (
AM WM M FM TM
C C K C C + + + = ) 1 (
) 5 . 0 * (
550
) (
) 1 (
2
s S S TS TS
S TS
AS WS S FS TS
V S C R
V R
hp EHP
C C K C C
=

=
+ + + =
AM FM TM WM
C K C C C + =

) 1 (
Froude
Expansion
Measured in tank
) calculated or (given, 0
smooth) is Model ( 0
) given or Calculated . factor scale to due (
d) (calculate ,
) / / V , (
S
=
=
=
= = =
AS
AM
M S
FS FM
M M S nM nS WM WS
C
C
K K
C C
gL V gL F F C C

1)
2)
3)
Ship Resistance Prediction
It is important to estimate the total resistance of a
ship during design stage for used of determination
the installed power.
There are two methods of resistance prediction
which are systematic series and standard series.
Systematic series is a prediction method that base
on the statistical analysis of resistance results from
adhoc testing of models in the towing tank and
which will be used in this project.
The standard series prediction method is based on
the testing of series model that carried out for the
resistance prediction purposes. However these
methods only applicable to be used for ship having
similar characteristics