Chapter 7- A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils, & Sedimentary Rocks

7-135

Biochemical limestone can consist of:

25% 25% 25% 25%

1. coral mounds and/or calcite shell fragments. 2. quartz sand grains on a beach. 3. deposits of clay. 4. deposits of plankton shells composed of silica.

7-136

What is the difference between chert and quartz?

25% 25% 25% 25%

1. Chert is always biological in origin, whereas quartz is inorganic. 2. They have different chemical compositions 3. Quartz is a mineral but chert is not. 4. Quartz can be formed from the action of fluids moving through rocks, but chert cannot.

http://staff.aist.go.jp/nomura-k/common/STRUCIMAGES/Quartz.gif

7-137

http://staff.aist.go.jp/nomura-k/common/STRUCIMAGES/Quartz.gif

7-138

http://www.cst.cmich.edu/USERS/DIETR1RV/introduction-group.jpg

Figure 1 A. Chalcedony. Photomicrograph (crosspolarized light; field of view heigth - ca. 4.8 mm across) of banded chalcedony, from south-central Saguache County, Colorado. As can be seen, this chalcedony consists of innumerable microscopic grains, virtually all of which are quartz. As noted in the discussion, this makeup, which is typical, is the basis of calling chalcedony a rock -- i.e., it is a microgranular, monomineralic rock. ( photo by Daniel E. Kile)

i
If chert is not a mineral, then what is it?C

http://mineralsciences.si.edu/staff/postdocs/gaillou.htm

www.quartzpage.de

7-139

The most abundant mineral in sand is quartz. Why? 33% 33% 33%

1. Quartz is the most abundant mineral in continental rocks. 2. Quartz is resistant to weathering compared to other minerals in continental rocks. 3. Quartz is a byproduct of chemical weathering, and therefore very common.

7-140

Which arrow indicates the direction of flow? 1. 2. 3. 4. A B C D

25% 25% 25%

25%

B C
1 2 3 4

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Ripples are formed by water flowing over loose sediment

Asymmetric ripples Unidirectional flow.

7-128

Sedimentary structures, continued

Graded beds are bedding layers that fine upward.

Graded beds are bedding layers that fine upward.

Sediment added as a pulse of turbid water. Water loses velocity and sediments settle. Coarsest material settles first, medium next, then fine.

7-129

 Repeated pulses of high-energy sediment transport create multiple graded-bed sequences called turbidites.

7-130

7-131

Bed-surface markings occur after deposition while sediment is still soft.

Mudcracks indicate alternating wet and dry conditions (on land)

7-132

http://www.depauw.edu/acad/geosciences/tcope/SedStruct/HiRes/Mudcracks2.jpg

7-133

Bed-surface markings occur after deposition while sediment is still soft.

Scour marks are troughs eroded in soft mud by current flow.

http://www.depauw.edu/acad/geosciences/tcope/SedStruct/HiRes/SoleMarks.jpg

7-134

Bed-surface markings occur after deposition while sediment is still soft. Trace fossils are evidence of past life.
Footprints. Shell impressions.

http://www.whaton.uwaterloo.ca/waton/pic/99tynd4.jpg

7-135
http://static.guim.co.uk/sys-images/Guardian/Pix/pictures/2009/2/27/1235723159663/A-fossil-footprint-left-b-001.jpg

1.5 Ma

http://fossilreproductions.com/images/DinosaurFootprints.jpg

http://www.maine.gov/doc/nrimc/mgs/explore/fossils/bedrock/trace-pic.jpg

7-141

Diagenesis

Physical, chemical, and biological changes to sediment. Bioturbation. Lithification. Dissolution. groundwater Mineral precipitation. Pressure solution. burial Temperatures up to ~200oC

R.Weller/Cochise College

R.Weller/Cochise College

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ja/e/ee/Migmatite012.jpg

8-1

Chapter 8 Metamorphism: A Process of Change

8-2

Introduction

Metamorphic Changed from an original parent. Meta = Change. Morph = Form or shape. Parent rocks are called protoliths. Metamorphism can occur to any protolith.

8-3

Protoliths undergo pronounced changes in: Texture Mineralogy Due to change in physical or chemical conditions Burial Tectonic stresses Heating by magma Alteration by fluids

8-4

Metamorphism occurs in the solid state. Does not include weathering, diagenesis, melting. Metamorphic rocks often look totally unlike protoliths.

7-146

The same but not the same.

Cooled from magma Formed in solid state from shale

granite
Both rocks contain quartz, biotite, and amphibole, but they started out very differently.

gneiss (nice)

8-5

Metamorphic rocks have distinctive properties. Texture Intergrown and interlocking grains. Some minerals occur only in metamorphic rocks.
Fossiliferous limestone

Marble

8-6

Metamorphic rocks have distinctive properties. Foliation Forces cause minerals to align.
Red mudstone

Garnet gneiss

8-7

Metamorphic processes

Metamorphic change is slow and in the solid state. Several metamorphic processes may operate at the same time. 1. Recrystallization Minerals change size and shape. 2. Phase change New minerals form with: Same chemical formula. Different crystal structure.

Kyanite

8-8

3. Neocrystallization
Pressure and temperature changes cause original minerals to become unstable. Original minerals decompose in the protolith. Ions react to form new minerals.

8-9

4. Pressure solution mineral grains partially dissolve

5. Plastic deformation mineral grains soften and deform

8-10

Metamorphism is caused by one or more of: Heat (Temperature T). Pressure (P). Differential stress. Hydrothermal fluids.

Rocks may be overprinted by multiple events.

8-11

Heat (Temperature)
The upper T limit is melting. varies based upon rock mineral composition and water content.

Metamorphism occurs as the result of heating between 200oC and 850oC.

Heat energy breaks and reforms atomic bonds. Sources of heat:

The geothermal gradient. Magmatic intrusions. Compression.

8-12

Pressure (P)
Metamorphism occurs mostly in 2 to 12 kbar range (10 to 40 km depth)

P increases with depth in the crust.

T and P both change with depth. Mineral stability is highly dependent upon T and P.

8-13

Mineral stability is highly dependent upon T and P.

Andalusite

Kyanite

Sillimanite

Al2SiO5

8-14

Differential Stress: pressure that is not uniform in all directions

Often a result of tectonic forces. Two kinds of differential stress: Normal and shear. 1. Normal stress operates perpendicular to a surface.
Tension Compression

8-15

Differential Stress: pressure that is not uniform in all directions

Often a result of tectonic forces. Two kinds of differential stress: Normal and shear.

2. Shear stress one part of a material moves sideways relative to another.

8-16

Preferred platy mineral alignment is called foliation. Foliation imparts a layered or banded appearance. Rocks commonly break parallel to foliation planes. Foliation develops perpendicular to compression.
How?

Differential Stress

8-17

http://earth.boisestate.edu/home/cjnorth/images/extension_fractures_cleavage2.jpg

but how do grains align?

8-18 Platy mineral allignment under differential stress

8-19 Platy mineral allignment under differential stress

8-20 Platy mineral allignment under differential stress

8-21 Platy mineral allignment under differential stress

8-22
http://www.rasny.org/mineral/Garnet/Garnet%20with%20hornblende%20reaction%20ring-413w.JPG

The wild and wacky world of mechanical deformation

http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/Ben/delta.JPG

feldspar garnet

garnet

??

Winged porphyroclasts/ porphyroblasts as shear sense indicators

http://www.geology.um.maine.edu/geodynamics/microdynamics/microfigs/spiral2.JPG

8-23

Hydrothermal fluids and metamorphism

Pore fluid: water, CO2, dissolved minerals Pore fluids affect metamorphism by:
Transporting dissolved material

Acting as chemical reservoirs

Speeding up chemical reactions Adding or subracting Pore elements space
Mineral crystals

8-24

Metamorphism vs. Metasomatism

If there is enough fluid flowing through a rock to substantially change the overall chemical composition of a rock, the process is referred to as metasommatism.

R.Weller/Cochise College

8-25

Metamorphic Rock Types

Two major subdivisions: foliated and non-foliated Foliated rocks have a through-going planar fabric. Subjected to differential stress. Has a significant component of platy minerals. Classified by composition, grain size, and foliation type.

8-26 Two major subdivisions: foliated and non-foliated Non-foliated rocks have no planar fabric evident. Crystallized without differential stress. Comprised of equant minerals only. Classified by mineral composition.

8-27

Non-foliated metamorphic rocks

1. Quartzite Almost pure quartz in composition. Protolith: quartz sandstone. Sand grains in the protolith recrystallize and fuse.

Metamorphic Alteration

8-28

Non-foliated metamorphic rocks

2. Marble - Coarsely crystalline calcite or dolomite. Protolith: limestone or dolostone Extensive recrystallization erases original textures and fossils.

Metamorphic Alteration

8-29

Non-foliated metamorphic rocks

3. Amphibolite Dominated by amphibole minerals. Protolith: Basalt or gabbro. Usually not well foliated. 4. Hornfels Alteration by heating. Protolith: plutonic intrusions. Finely crystalline.

8-30

Summary of metamorphic rocks

Foliated Non-foliated Quartzite Marble Amphibolite Hornfels
Sedimentary protolith Igneous protolith

8-31

Grade is a measure of metamorphic intensity

8-32

Foliated metamorphic rocks

1. Slate Has a distinct foliation called slaty cleavage from alignment of platy clay minerals. Protolith: shale. Slate breaks along this foliation creating flat sheets. Grade: Low

8-33

Foliated metamorphic rocks

2. Phyllite Fine-grained mica-rich rock with satiny lustre. Protolith: slate (shale) Grade: low medium Clay minerals neocrystallize into tiny micas.

phyllite

slate

8-34

Foliated metamorphic rocks

3. Schist Fine - coarse rock with larger micas. Protolith: phyllite (shale) or other mica-rich rock Grade: Medium to high Foliation: schistosity, from alignment of large mica crystals grown at higher T. Schist often has other minerals due to neocrystallization (quartz, feldspars, kyanite, garnet, staurolite, sillimanite) Large non-mica minerals are called porphyroblasts.

8-35

Foliated metamorphic rocks

4. Gneiss distinct banded foliation (compositional banding). Light bands of felsic minerals (quartz and feldspars). Dark bands of mafic minerals (biotite or amphibole).

8-36

Summary of metamorphic rocks

Foliated
Increasing metamorphic grade

Non-foliated Quartzite Marble Amphibolite Hornfels

Sedimentary protolith Igneous protolith
Increasing grain size

Slate
Grains not visible

Phyllite Schist

Visible grains

Gneiss

8-37

How does compositional banding develop?

1. Original layering in the protolith. 2. Extensive high T shearing.

8-38 How

does compositional banding develop?

3. Compositional banding Solid-state chemical differentiation.

8-39

Migmatite

Migmatite is a partially melted gneiss. It has features of igneous and metamorphic rocks. Mineralogy controls behavior. Light-colored (felsic) minerals melt at lower T. Dark-colored (mafic) minerals melt a higher T. Felsics melt first; mafics remain metamorphic.

8-40

clay

quartz

chlorite
muscovite biotite garnet Staurolite Ksp
Sillimanite

Fig. 8.19

8-41

Grade is a measure of metamorphic intensity

8-42

Specific minerals typify particular grades.

8-43

Specific minerals typify particular grades.

 Metamorphic facies Mineral assemblage from a specific protolith at specific P-T conditions.
8-44

8-45 Index minerals have a limited P-T range and record metamorphic grade.

Fig. 8.21

8-46

Metamorphic Environments

Metamorphism occurs in different settings. Different settings yield different effects via Geothermal gradient. Differential stresses. Hydrothermal fluids. These characteristics are governed by tectonics.

8-47a

Metamorphic types and environments

1. Burial metamorphism

8-47b 2. Regional metamorphism

Creates foliated rocks.

8-47c 2. Regional metamorphism

Creates foliated rocks. Most important in terms of the amount of rock altered. Collisional belts are often 1000s of km long. 100s of km wide.
Tibetan Plateau, Himalayan Mts.

3. Subduction metamorphism Subduction creates the unique blueschist facies. Trenches and accretionary prisms have low T, high P P-T condtions produce glaucophane, a blue p. 249 amphibole mineral.
Glaucophane exhibits pleochroism under polarized light

8-48

http://jm-derochette.be/images/Spectrometer/Glaucophane_base%20V_I.jpg

http://www.dvminerals.com/img2006/G-150.jpg

8-49

4. Contact metamorphism

Due to heat from magma invading host rock. Creates zoned bands of alteration in host rock called metamorphic aureoles. Zones go from high grade near the intrusion to low grade away from the intrusion. Does not cause foliation.

8-50

4. Contact metamorphism
slate

andalusite

Low-grade hornfels

Int.-grade hornfels
andalusite & sillimanite

8-51 5. Hydrothermal metamorphism

Alteration by hot, chemically aggressive water. A dominant process near mid-ocean ridge magma.

8-52a

5. Hydrothermal metamorphism

The hot water rises and is ejected via black smokers.

oceanexplorer.noaa.gov

8-52b

5. Hydrothermal metamorphism

http://z.about.com/d/geology/1/0/h/L/greenschist.jpg

8-53 1.43 Ga black smokers from a massive sulfide deposit in China

http://highlyallochthonous.blogspot.com/2007/01/precambrian-black-smokers.html

8-54a 6. Dynamic metamorphism Breakage of rock by shearing at a fault zone. Shallow crust (Upper 1015 km): Brittle deformation forms fault breccia

Fault breccia

http://www.portervillecollege.edu/richardgoode/DeathValleyPicts/Fault%20Breccia.JPG

8-54b 6. Dynamic metamorphism mylonite Deeper crust (Below 10-15 km.): ductile deformation forms mylonite

http://earth.boisestate.edu/home/cjnorth/images/mylonite.JPG

7. Shock metamorphism When Earth is struck by a comet or asteroid, impacts generate a compressional shock wave.
8-55 Extremely high pressure. Heat that vaporizes or melts large masses of rock.

These conditions generate high-pressure minerals coesite and stishovite.

http://www.portervillecollege.edu/richardgoode/DeathValleyPicts/Fault%20Breccia.JPG http://www.chiemgau-impact.com/images/intro/2%20shattercone%20Steinheim.jpg

http://earth.boisestate.edu/home/cjnorth/images/mylonite.JPG

8-56

7. Shock metamorphism

Shatter cones in quartzite near Sudbury

http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/mindep/photolib/ni_cu_pge/sudbury/images/fig08.jpg

8-57

How do metamorphic rocks return to the surface?

Exhumation is due to... Uplift Compression squeezes deep rocks upward. Extensional collapse Uplifted range spreads outward. Erosional unroofing Weathering and erosion removes vast amounts of rock.