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Monroe L.

Weber-Shirk
School of Civil and
Environmental Engineering
Gravity Water Supply Design
What information do you need?
What kinds of data would you expect to
have?

Gravity Water Supply Design
Design flows
Population projection
Demand variability
Tank buffering
Transmission line design algorithms
Air in pipelines

Population Projection
Example from Agua Para el Pueblo
(Honduras)
Count the houses
Assume 6 people per house
Assume linear growth for design period
N = design period
K = growth rate

Poblacin futura ( Pf ) =Pa(1+N*K/100)
K =Tasa de crecimiento ( 3.5% )
N =Perodo de diseo ( 22 aos )
( )
1
future present
P P NK = +
Water Demand
Assume a per capita demand (this might be
based on a governmental regulation)
Multiply per capita demand by the future
population to get design average demand
Multiply average demand by peak factors
to get maximum day demand and maximum
hour demand

( )
interval t
Max Q
Q
A
Peak Flow Factors
At range typical value
day 1.5 - 3.0 1.8
hour 2.0 - 4.0 3.25

In small water systems, demand factors may be
significantly higher than those shown C Chin. Water-Resources Engineering
( )
interval t
Max Q
Q
A
Running average over time At
Peak Flow Factors (2)
Number of taps
Averaging interval
Population of 1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
1
0
0
1
,
0
0
0
1
0
,
0
0
0
1
0
0
,
0
0
0
1
,
0
0
0
,
0
0
0
1
0
,
0
0
0
,
0
0
0
averaging interval (s)
P
e
a
k

f
a
c
t
o
r
Population of ????
0
1
2
3
4
5
1
0
0
1
,
0
0
0
1
0
,
0
0
0
1
0
0
,
0
0
0
1
,
0
0
0
,
0
0
0
1
0
,
0
0
0
,
0
0
0
averaging interval (s)
P
e
a
k

f
a
c
t
o
r year
?
( )
interval t
Max Q
Q
A
(Population)
Where is steep slope?______
1 day
A dimensionless quantity
What is it a function of?
__________________
Longest interval _____
Shortest interval _____
__________________

Population and Peak Flow Factor
What is the instantaneous peak factor for
one person?
Average flow (100 l/d)
Max flow (5 l/min = 7200 l/d)
What is the maximum (typical) duration of
this high flowrate?
20 minutes would get average daily flow so
perhaps this is a reasonable guess (1200 s)

( )
interval
1
t
person
l
Max Q
d
l
Q
d
A
| |
| |
|
| = =
|
|
|
\ .
\ .
7200
100
72
Peak factors and Transmission Lines
The smallest diameter transmission line that could
possible work is one that would exactly provide
the average demand
We would need to accommodate the variable
demand with a very large storage tank (that could
handle seasonal fluctuations)

Tank size Pipe diameter tradeoff
The peak factor is small for time periods greater than 1 day
The storage volume required for long time periods is great
Tanks are typically designed to accommodate fluctuations over periods
of time less than one day
Transmission lines are designed to accommodate flow for the
maximum day
population 1000
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
1
0
0
1
,
0
0
0
1
0
,
0
0
0
1
0
0
,
0
0
0
1
,
0
0
0
,
0
0
0
averaging interval (s)
P
e
a
k

f
a
c
t
o
r
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
v
o
l
u
m
e

(
L
)
peak factor
tank volume per person
If the transmission line has a
length of zero meters, what
size should the distribution
tank be?

Eliminate the tank???
Distribution Storage Tank Functions
Buffers demand fluctuations
Chlorine contact time for disinfection
Can be used during transmission line maintenance
operations to provide continuous supply
If transmission line fails the system continues to
provide water
Fire protection
Which function dominates?
Design Flows
Transmission Line Design flow
Based on maximum daily demand at the end of the
system design life
Distribution system design flows
Take maximum hourly flow at the end of the system
design life
Divide that flow by the current number of houses to get
a flow per house
The flow in each pipe is calculated based on the
number of houses downstream
This flow scheme doesnt work for small systems!!!!
Tank provides buffering for 1 day
Pipe Diameters
How are pipe sizes chosen?
Energy Equation
An equation for head loss
Requirement of minimum pressure in the
system
Pipes must also withstand maximum pressure

2 2
1 1 2 2
1 1 2 2
2 2
p t L
p V p V
z h z h h
g g
o o

+ + + = + + + +
V is typically less than 3 m/s for pipelines
2
1
1
0.5
2
V
m
g
o <
Transmission Line Design
Air release valves
HGL
EGL
Spring
box
Distribution
Tank
2
2 5
8
f
f
LQ
h
g D p
=
( )
1
future present
P P NK = +
Hydraulic Grade Line Minimum
Avoid having the HGL below the point in
the system for which it is plotted (negative
pressure)
Air will accumulate at intermediate high
points in the pipeline and the air release
valve wont be able to discharge the air if
the pressure is negative
Air Release Valves
http://www.ipexinc.com/industrial/
airreleasevalves.html
http://www.apcovalves.com/airvalve.htm
Air release valves are
prone to failure
Must be located precisely
I hope to provide more
info in section on air in
pipes
Where do we get each term in the equation
for pipe diameter?
What is wrong with the slope of my lines?
Transmission Line Design
0.04
4.75 5.2
2
1.25 9.4
f f
0.66
LQ L
D Q
gh gh
c v
(
| | | |
= + (
| |
(
\ . \ .

Critical point
Transmission Line Design Steps
Calculate the ratio for each known
point along transmission line starting from
the source.
L is the total pipe length (not horizontal
distance)
Find the maximum ratio
Find the minimum pipe size
0
0
i
i
L
z z

0
0
max
i
i f
L L
z z h

| |
=
|

\ .
0.04
4.75 5.2
2
1.25 9.4
f f
0.66
LQ L
D Q
gh gh
c v
(
| | | |
= + (
| |
(
\ . \ .

Transmission Line Design Steps
Continued
Round up to the next real pipe size (check
your materials database)
Calculate the location of the HGL given the
real pipe size


Calculate the location of the HGL at critical
point i
Now begin at point i at the HGL elevation
and repeat the analysis
2
f
2 5
8
f
LQ
h
g D t
=
2
0.9
0.25
f
5.74
log
3.7 Re D
c
=
(
| |
+
|
(
\ .

Re =
4Q
D t v
Designing the next section
Actual HGL given real pipe size
Pipelines can have
multiple critical points or a
single critical point (the
end of the line!)
We are finding the HGL that meets the requirement
HGL must be above the pipeline
Alternate Pipe Size Selection
Procedure
Given design flow rate, calculate for
each pipe


Given the required ratio of pipe length to
elevation drop select a pipe from the
appropriate schedule that has a value of
that is greater than the required value
2 5
2
f
8f
L g D
h Q
t
=
2
0.9
1
f
5.74
4 log
3.7 Re D
c
=
(
| |
+
|
(
\ .

Re =
4Q
D t v
f
L
h
0
0
max
i
i f
L L
z z h

| |
=
|

\ .
f
L
h
1
10
100
1000
10000
100000
1000000
10 100 1000
Pipe internal diameter (mm)
L
/
h
f
Mix pipe sizes to get design flow
We could mix a large pipe and a small pipe
to more closely deliver the design flow
Given total pipeline length (L) and total
elevation difference (h
f
)
Select a pipe with smaller (L/h
f
)
1
and a pipe
with larger (L/h
f
)
2

Calculate length of each pipe required subject
to total length and total head loss constraints
Two Pipe Size Mix
f f
2 1 f
2 1
h h
L L h
L L
| | | |
+ =
| |
\ . \ .
1 2
L L L + =
2 1
L L L =
Head loss constraint
Length constraint
1 2
L L L =
( )
f f
2 2 f
2 1
h h
L L L h
L L
| | | |
+ =
| |
\ . \ .
f f f
2 2 f
2 1 1
h h h
L L L h
L L L
| | | | | |
+ =
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
f
f
1
2
f f
2 1
h
h L
L
L
h h
L L
| |

|
\ .
=
| | | |

| |
\ . \ .
1 2
f f f
h h h + =
Mixing pipe sizes
If you install the small pipe upstream from
the large pipe it is possible that the HGL
will drop below the pipeline
If there arent any other constraints, install
the large pipe diameter upstream
If possible, use the small pipe where higher
pressure rating PVC or galvanized iron pipe
is required
Pressure Constraints
Different schedules of pipe can withstand
different pressures (higher pressure means
thicker walls means more money)
The system must be designed so that a valve
can be closed right at the distribution tank
and the pipes must withstand the resulting
static pressure (p=gh)
PVC Schedules
Schedule Max pressure
(psi)
Max Static Head
(m)
SDR 26 160 112
SDR 21 200 141
SDR 17 250 176
SDR 13.5 315 221
40 and 80 f(diameter) f(diameter)
Schedules 40 and 80
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
pipe diameter (inches)
o
p
e
r
a
t
i
n
g

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
m
)
40 max operating (m)
80 max operating (m)
Different pipe materials
Galvanized iron pipe is more expensive
than PVC and is rougher (has more head
loss)
So it can be logical to use smaller
galvanized iron pipe than PVC pipe even
though the head loss will be much greater
through the iron pipe!

Goal is to get design flow rate at
minimum cost
I am not sure what the correct algorithm is!
The available energy can be spent as head loss
wherever you like
Goal is to use the energy where it reduces the
project cost most
Use smaller diameter pipes for high pressure
sections of PVC pipe or for galvanized iron pipe
Head loss changes rapidly as pipe size changes, so
it will only be possible to use slightly smaller
pipes.
Hydraulic Gradeline
1000
1050
1100
1150
1200
1250
1300
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Cumulative Horizontal Pipe Length (m)
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
)
Perfil de elevacin
Lnea de Gradiente Hidrulico
PVC SDR 26 Lmite de presin
PVC SDR 21 Lmite de presin
PVC SDR 17 Lmite de presin
PVC SDR 13.5 Lmite de presin
HGL
Static HGL
112 m
1.5
2
Pressure Break
A small tank (with a free surface) in a
pipeline used to prevent high pressure
downstream from the pressure break
Inflow can be regulated by a float valve
If inflow is unregulated excess water will
exit through an overflow
Pressure breaks can be installed to make it
possible to use cheaper pipes

Surveying
u
Vertical angle
r
Ax
Az
cos
2
x r
p
q

D = -

sin
2
z r
p
q

D = -

Surveying using Stadia
u
Vertical angle
r
Ax
cos
2
x r
p
q

D = -

sin
2
z r
p
q

D = - -

The reading is on a vertical rod, so it needs to be
corrected to the smaller distance measured
perpendicular to a straight line connecting the
theodolite to the rod.
a
Az
b
c
cos
2
b c
p
q

= -

Horizontal Distance
cos
2
x r
p
q

D = -

cos
2
b c
p
q

= -

sin cos
2
p
q q

= -

Trig identity
sin x r q D =
sin b c q =
r Mb =
M is the Stadia multiplier (often 100)
( )
2
sin x Mc q D =
c is the Stadia reading
Vertical Distance
sin
2
z r
p
q

D = - -

( )
sin cos cos
2
p
q q p q

- = - = -

sin cos
2
p
q q

= -

sin b c q =
r Mb =
sin cos z Mc q q D =
( )
1
sin 2 sin cos
2
q q q =
cos z r q D =
sin 2
2
Mc
z q D =
Trig identities
GPS surveying accuracy
100 meters: Accuracy of the original GPS system,
which was subject to accuracy degradation under
the government-imposed Selective Availability
(SA) program.
15 meters: Typical GPS position accuracy without
SA.
3-5 meters: Typical differential GPS (DGPS)
position accuracy.
< 3 meters: Typical WAAS position accuracy
WAAS not available everywhere
GPS with Barometric Altimeter
15 m isnt nearly good enough for vertical
measurements when designing pipelines
Barometric pressure decreases with
elevation
Can we use barometric pressure to measure
elevation?


We need an accurate measure of______
f
L
h
Perfect Gas at Constant
Temperature (Isothermal)
p nRT =
gas
pM
RT
g =
dz
RT
g pM
dp
gas
=
dz
RT
g M
p
dp
z
z
gas
p
p
} }
=
2
1
2
1
( )
1 2
1
2
ln z z
RT
g M
p
p
gas
=
( )
e
z z
RT
g M
gas
p p
(


=
1 2
1 2
M
gas
is molecular mass
is function of p
dp dz
gas
nM
= =

Integrate
| = 0.00650 K/m
Perfect Gas with Constant
Temperature Gradient
The atmosphere can be modeled as having a
constant temperature gradient
z T T
a
| =
dz
RT
g M
p
dp
gas
=
( )
dz
z T R
g M
p
dp
a
gas
|
=
( )
} }

=
z
a
gas
p
p
z T
dz
R
g M
p
dp
a
0
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
a
a
gas
a
T
z T
R
g M
p
p |
|
ln
1
ln
1
gas
M g
R
a
a
z
p p
T
|
|
| |
=
|
\ .
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 5000 10000 15000
Elevation (m)
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
k
P
a
)
Lapse rate
Mt. Everest
8,850 m
1
gas
R
M g
a
a
T p
z
p
|
|
(
| |
(
=
|
(
\ .
(

Pressure Differential
To measure a 1 meter difference in elevation the
altimeter must be able to resolve a 10 Pa
difference in pressure given a total pressure of
approximately 100,000 Pa
1
gas
R
M g
a
a
T p
z
p
|
|
(
| |
(
=
|
(
\ .
(

10
100
1000
10000
1 10 100 1000
Elevation (m)
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
t
i
a
l

(
P
a
)
Barometric
altimeters require
extremely high
resolution (5 or 6
digits of precision)
Elevations that are as Changeable as
the Weather
Changes in the weather can produce
barometric pressure differences of 2500 Pa
This pressure change translate to an
elevation error of 220 m!
Compensation for barometric pressure
fluctuations is essential
Use a 2
nd
barometric altimeter to log
elevation while at a fixed location
Air in Pipelines
Three sources of air
Startup
Low flow
Air super saturation
Air Outline
Will the water flow with air in the pipeline?
HGL for a pipeline with air
Trapped air volumes
Dimensional Analysis?
Under what conditions will the air be forced through the
pipeline?
Air handling strategies
Air release valve at all high points
Conventional strategy
Valves must be placed carefully
Design high flow rates that carry air downstream

Will water flow in the pipeline?
What is the slope of the HGL in the section of
pipe with air? ___________________
How much head is lost in the air section?______
What does the HGL look like if a valve is closed
at the end of the pipeline?
How much head is available for major losses?
Same as slope of pipeline
height
Constant pressure
What is the volume of air?
Function of
Topography
Air entrapped during filling
Air carried in during operation
Worst case
All downward sloping pipe downstream of a
high point (other than the source) could be
filled with air
Air purge: length, velocity, density,
forces
Length:
Velocity: average water velocity
Density:
Forces:
Froude number!
Will there be a transition in water surface elevation?
c
V
Fr
yg
V
= =
pipe diameter, pipe length, elevation change
water density, air density
inertia, viscosity, gravity, surface tension
What mechanism moves the air?
Shear between water and air
Entrainment of air by turbulence
Hydraulic jump at the bottom of the air column
Waves and whitecaps down the incline
As the flow rate increases, is there a
transition when it is no longer possible for
the water to switch to open channel flow?
Air Entrainment by surface breakup
|
e
Air Entrainment (perhaps fraction
of fluid that is air)
But according to
Gilles Corcos the entire
sock of air is carried
through the system at once.
Is the air pulled out or pushed out?
Another mechanism moves the water out before shear
gets this large!
Subcritical vs. Supercritical
The energy grade line must always drop in
the direction of flow
If the flow switches from full pipe to partial
pipe the velocity must increase as the depth
decreases ______________
At a certain critical velocity it is no longer
possible to reduce the depth because it
would require a net increase in energy
___________________________________
K.E. increases
K.E. increase > P.E. decrease
Froude number
Waves
Another way to think of this
The air is forced out of the pipeline by a
wave that is traveling down the pipe
The wave is forced to travel down the pipe
when the wave speed is less than the water
velocity!
Froude number is the ratio of the water
velocity to the wave speed!
c
V
Fr
yg
V
= =
yg
Mach is pressure wave speed, Froude is gravity wave speed
Better definition
Wave propagation
c is wave velocity relative to water
c yg =
The wave speed is not a function
of the air pressure!
y is the water depth
gA
c
T
=
water depth in
a pipe
y
A
r
T
Energy Equation at Transition to
Open Channel Flow
cs
1

cs
2

A contraction (but no vena contracta)
Mechanical Energy is conserved
2 2
1 2
2
2 2
V V
D y
g g
+ = +
2 2
1 2
2
2 4
8
2
Q V
D y
D g g t
+ = +
z
2 2
1 1 2 2
1 1 2 2
2 2
p t L
p V p V
z h z h h
g g
o o

+ + + = + + + +
y is water depth
Flow in Round Conduits
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
r
y r
arccos u
( ) u u u cos sin
2
= r A
u sin 2r T =
u
y
T
A
r
u r P 2 =
radians
( )( ) sin cos r r q q =
50% full case
Suppose the conduit is
running 50% full of water
Then if Q is greater than
a wave would be forced
downstream
What determines if Q is
greater than this critical
flow? ______________
___________________
___________________
2
2
8
8
D
g
D
Q
D
t
t
=
Flow in the pipeline given
lost head due to trapped air
gA
V
T
=
2
8
D
A
t
=
T D =
gA
Q A
T
=
3/ 2
5/ 2 1/ 2
8
Q D g
t
| |
=
|
\ .
5/ 2 1/ 2
0.25 Q D g =
Celerity in Conduits
gA
c
T
=
So if V is greater than c a wave has to travel downstream
The area of the pipe filled with water
The wave celerity must vary with the depth of water
How? Plot celerity as function of depth in a pipe
The top width of the water surface
Celerity vs. Water Depth in a Pipe
As water depth increases,
so does the wave velocity
This suggests that it is
more difficult to purge air
when the pipe is running
almost full
If pipe is 80% full the
wave celerity would be
1.5 x the wave celerity of
a 50% full pipe

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Relative wave velocity (c/c at 0.5d)
d
e
p
t
h
/
d
i
a
m
e
t
e
r
95% full case
Suppose the conduit is
running 95% full of water
Then if Q is greater than
a wave would be forced
downstream
So we expect critical flow to
be between
2
2
3
3
4
4 0.44
D
g
D
Q
D
=
gA
V
T
=
2
3
4
D
A =
0.44 T D =
gA
Q A
T
=
5/ 2 1/ 2 5/ 2 1/ 2
0.25D g Q D g < <
5/ 2 1/ 2
0.5
c
Q d g ~
Gilles Corcos
Emeritus professor of fluid mechanics
U. of California Berkeley , M.E. Department
Design to move the air
Only a problem if there is an intermediate
high point
Attention to detail when laying the pipe!
A design procedure is given in Air in
Pipelines
Or install air release valves at high points
where the flow rate is less than the critical
flow
Grand Coulee Dam

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