Chapter 13 Energy from Nuclear Power

APES

Chapter 13 Reading Quiz

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

7.

8.

Why was the Nuclear Regulatory Commission started? What is the difference between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion? All current plants use the nuclear ________ of ____________. What is enrichment? Control rods absorb _____. What is half-life? The EPA recommends a 10,000 year minimum and the National Research Council opted for _______ years to provide protection from long-lived isotopes. What does NIMBY stand for and how does it apply to this chapter?

Tokaimura, Japan

Village near Tokyo

Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute 9/30/99 3 workers mixed nitric acid and uranium in buckets --- amounts were well above the approved levels

Began a nuclear fission reaction Not large enough to explode but emitted large amounts of gamma rays and neutrons Took 24 hours to shut down rxn

13.1 Nuclear Energy in Perspective

The Nuclear Age

After WWII there was a push for nuclear power in effort to show that the power of the atom could benefit humankind US government began supporting research and companies began building nuclear power plants NRC (Nuclear Regulatory Commission) and the Atomic Energy Commission was created to set safety standards for operation and maintenance of new plants

Figure 13-2 p. 351

13.2 How Nuclear Power Works

Objective: control nuclear rxns so that energy is released gradually as heat

Heat will then be used to boil water to produce steamwhich drives a turbogenerator

Usually a base load plant

Always operating unless being refueled

Generates 1,400 MW

Mass to Energy

Usually energy comes from breaking chemical bonds.

Oil, coal, gas Break bonds between C-C and energy is released

Nuclear energy involves changes on the atomic level so there is greater energy release

The mass of the products after fission or fusion is less than the mass of the starting material this loss of mass is converted to energy Law of mass energy equivalence

E=mc2; tells you how much energy a certain mass would have if it suddenly turned into energy

Mass to Energy

E=mc2

Energy = mass (speed of light)2 Speed of light is 3.00x108

Ex: In 1kg of water, the mass of hydrogen atoms is 111g or 0.111kg. How much energy would be released if the mass of energy is suddenly released? Or if you had just 1kg of material.it would release 90,000,000,000,000,000 J of energythat would run a 100 watt light bulb for 28,519,279 years!!!

13.2 How Nuclear Power Works

From Mass to Energy

Fission and Fusion

Fission- a large atom of one element is split to produce two smaller atoms of different elements

uranium-235

Fusion two smaller atoms combine to form a larger atom of a different element

Isotopes of hydrogen helium Can only occur at temperatures in excess of 40,000,000C

Figure 13-5 p. 353

The Fuel for Nuclear Power Plants

All current plants use the fission of uranium 235

2 forms of uranium that occur naturally in the earth

U-235 and U-238 Isotopes differ in numbers of neutrons

How many protons and neutrons are found in the isotopes? Why are they still uranium even though they have different numbers?

The Fuel for Nuclear Power Plants

U-235 will readily undergo fission while U-238 will not

To begin a reaction to produce energy, there has to be a specific combination of U-235 and U-238 in a sample. The U-235 is unstable and so it begins to release neutrons by means of radioactive decay (naturally) Neutrons moving at the right speed hits another U-235 which then becomes U-236 which is highly unstable and undergoes fission immediately Continues in a chain reaction,

Nuclear Fuel

How do we get uranium to use? Mine.

Uranium ore is mined and then purified into uranium dioxide (UO2) and then enriched.

99.3% of all uranium found in nature is U-238 0.7% is U-235

Enrichment involves separating U-235 from U238, small differences in mass

Very technical and prevents less developed countries from advancing their own nuclear power

Enrichment

The combination of U-235 and U-238 is critical

Too much enrichment or a higher percentage or U-235 can cause the frequency of a chain reaction to occur

Nuclear weapons and bombs use highly enriched U235 20% U-235 is highly enriched; 80-93% for nuclear weapons programs

The Nuclear Reactor.Figure 13-8 p. 357

The Nuclear Reactor for power plants

Designed to sustain a continuous chain reaction but not allow it to amplify into a nuclear explosion

Control- enriching only to 4% U-235 and 96% U-238 Will not support a chain reaction that will result in an explosion

Japan accident the U-235 mixed with nitric acid was 18.8% enriched

In the process of fission, some of the faster neutrons are absorbed by U-238 atoms, converting them into Pu-239 which then undergoes fission

1/3 of the energy of a nuclear reactor comes from Pu fission

The Nuclear Reactor for power plants

Moderator A chain rxn can be achieved if:

1. there is a suitable amount of U-235 2. arranged in a geometric pattern 3. surrounded by a material called a moderator Substance, usually water (light water reactors; LWR in US) or can be graphite or deuterium oxide (D2O; heavy water) Slows down the neutrons that produce fission so that they are traveling at the right speed to trigger another fission The moderator gains some of the heat produced during the fission reactions

The Nuclear Reactor for power plants

Fuel Rods

To achieve the geometric pattern, UO2 is made into pellets and loaded into long metal tubes fuel rods or fuel elements

Fuel rods are placed close together to form a reactor core inside a strong vessel that holds water (moderator and heat exchange fluid or coolant)

Over time, daughter products accumulate in the fuel rods and most be removed and replaced

The Nuclear Reactor for power plants

Control Rods

Chain rxn is also controlled by control rods Placed between fuel rods to absorb neutrons

Moveable

IN = fewer neutrons = power or energy goes down Out = more neutrons = power goes up

Can be made out of anything that is a neutron poison or something that will take neutrons away (cadmium)

Figure 13-7 p. 356

LOCA

Loss-of-coolant accident

If the reactor vessel should break, the sudden loss of water could cause the core to overheat.

The coolant water loss (moderator) would cause fission to cease 7% of the reactors heat comes from radioactive decay and overtime uncontrolled decay would cause a meltdown

The materials in the core melting

Steam explosion.

Comparing Nuclear Power with Coal Power

13.3 The Hazards and Costs of Nuclear Power Facilities

Radioactive Emissions

When an element undergoes fission, the split halves are direct products Direct products are unstable isotopes called radioisotopes Radioisotopes spontaneously eject alpha, beta, gamma particles and neutrons

Alpha particles: contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons and a double positive charge; written as 42He or Low penetration and can be shielded by paper or clothing Beta particles: Occurs when a neutron is split into a proton (hydrogen) and an electron which is the beta particle; written as 0 e or -1 Moderate penetration and can be shielded by metal foil Gamma particles: high energy photon; no mass and no electrical charge; written as Very high penetration; will penetrate body easily and can be partially shielded by lead and concrete

Radioactivity

Measured in curies

1g of Ra-226 gives off 1 curie per second

Radioactive wastesdirect and indirect products of nuclear fission

Figure 13-10

Biological Effects of Radiation

Exposure to low levels of radiation could elevate the risk of cancer and other disorders

The ability to do damage is measured in sieverts (Sv)

May cause enough damage to prevent cell division Used in cancer treatment because it focuses the radiation to prevent the tumor from dividing. If whole body is exposed: generalized blockage of cell division which could prevent the repair of blood, skin and other tissues results in radiation sickness and death within a few days or months

High Dose (over 1 Sv)

Biological Effects of Radiation

Low Dose

May damage DNA Increase mitosis

Malignant tumors Leukemia

DNA damage to egg or sperm can lead to birth defects Effects could go unseen for many years Also weakens the immune system, could cause mental retardation and the development of cataracts How much exposure will do harm? 100-500 millisieverts (mSv) increases the risk of developing cancer

Sources of Radiation

Background radiation:

normal uranium and radon gas naturally found in Earths crust Cosmic rays Medical and dental x-rays During normal operations of a nuclear power plant Radiation detectors will pick up more background radiation from the ground or concrete than it will held with in 150 yards of a nuclear power plant

Less than 1% public exposure

Radioactive Wastes

Radioactive decay:

Unstable isotopes ejecting particles and radiation eventually become stable and cease to be radioactive The amount of time it takes for half the material to decay

Half-Life

Always the same, no matter how big the starting material is Range from a fraction of a second to many thousands of years

Disposal of Radioactive Wastes

Short term containment: allows the radioactive decay of short-lived isotopes (half-life is in days)

In 10 years 97% of the radioactivity will be gone

Long term containment: long lived isotopes (half-life is in years)

EPA recommends a 10,000 year minimum and the National Research Council opted for 100,000 years to provide protection from long-lived isotopes Government standards require isolation for 20 half-lives So if Pu has half-life of 24,000 years.how many years will it take for Pu to be declared safe

Tanks and Casks

Short term containment:

Casks

1st the waste is stored in a swimming pool like tank on site of the nuclear power plant

Air-cooled Interim storage until longterm storage becomes available

H2O dissipates waste heat and shields escape of radiation Accommodate 10-20 years of spent fuel Storage pools reached 50% by 2004 and will be 100% by 2015

Military Radioactive Wastes

Worst failures in handling wastes

Connection with manufacture of nuclear weapons Deliberate releases of uranium dust, Xe-133, I131 and tritium have occurred

Handford, WA, Oak Ridge, TN, Fernald, OH and Savannah River, SC

DOE in charge of cleaning

Russian military

Chelyabinsk-65

Russian military weapons facility 20 years, nuclear waste was dumped into the Techa River and then into Lake Karachay

1,000 cases of leukemia Standing on the shore of Lake Karachay for 1 hour will cause radiation poisoning and death with in a week Legacy of the Cold War

High-Level Nuclear Waste Disposal

Geologic burial is the only option for longterm containment of nuclear wastes

Basic problem: no rock formation can be guaranteed to remain stable and dry for 10,000+ years

Yucca Mountain

Efforts to locate a long-term containment facility have been hampered by..

NIMBY

Many states have passed legislation prohibiting the disposal of nuclear wastes within their boundaries

Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982- federal government to begin receiving nuclear waste from commercial power plants in 1998

1987- Congress called a halt to the debate and selected Yucca Mtn in Nevada to be the nations civilian nuclear waste disposal site

Yucca Mountain

Nevadans passed a law in 1989 that prohibits anyone from storing high-level radioactive waste in the state

Federal government has the power to override

July 2002 President Bush signed a resolution that was passed by Congress voiding a veto by Nevadas Governor Kenny Guinn that had attempted to block further development

Nuclear Power Plant Accidents

Three Mile Island

March 28, 1979 Near Middleton, PA

Partial meltdown- result of human and equipment failures and flawed design No injuries or death Reactor was badly damaged

Chernobyl

April 26, 1986 Ukraine Engineers were conducting tests

Removed control rods, shut off flow of steam to generators and decreased flow of coolant water to reactor Reactor began to heat up extra steam could not escape and had the effect of rapidly boosting the energy production of the rxn Engineers put in carbon-tipped control rods which acted as moderators Neutrons were still moving too fast; more fission rxns which eventually led to a split-second power surge 100x the maximum allowed level Steam explosions blew the 2000 ton top off the reactor which led to a meltdown graphite moderator burned for days 50 tons of dust and debris bearing 100-200 million curies of radioactivity

100x the radiation fallout from the bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945

Could an accident in US

US uses LWR moderators not graphite

LWR are incapable of developing a power surge more than twice their normal power A surge generated in this situation would be within the designed capacity of the reactor vessel There are also more backup systems that prevent overheating

Reactors are housed within a thick walled containment building designed to withstand explosions like Chernobyl which had no containment building .but with all of these precautions there still could be a total loss of coolant accident

Nuclear Power and Safety

As a result of Three Mile Island the NRC upgraded safety standards

Terrorism and Nuclear Power Question: could a jetliner penetrate the thick walls of the containment vessel..NO But.. A jetliner could destroy the control building and bring on a LOCA Spent fuel storage pools..targeted protection not as thick and there could be a loss of water which would expose people to radiation.

Economic Problems

Riskstarting, maintaining and safety Cost of electricity is rising Embrittlement- neutrons from fission bombarded the reactor vessel and other hardware metals become brittle and must be replaced to prevent a LOCA Corrosion- from water

Resources

www.eoearth.org/article/Tokaimura_criticality http://www.worsleyschool.net/science/files/e mc2/emc2.html http://www.fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/uranium.ht m <ahref="http://science.jrank.org/pages/4754/ Nuclear-Reactor-Control-rods.html">Nuclear Reactor - Control Rods</a>

www.ohiocitizen.org