Hand Out Mata Kuliah Sosiologi dan Ekonomi Masyarakat Pesisir

Dosen Dr. Suardi Tarumun tarumun@yahoo.com

Bab 1 Introduction to Environmental Economics

(Pengantar ilmu ekonomi lingkungan)

Chapter 1

Introduction
In this chapter you will learn . . . Meaning of economics and environment Models of Economics Positive and normative economics Economic actors Price determination, supply and demand

Meaning of Economics
Economics is the study of how individuals and societies make decisions in the present of constraints (scarce resources). So, the need to make choices arises from scarcity of resources. The science of how to allocate the scarce resources efficiently to fulfill the unlimited need of human being. The study of human behavior in allocating the scarce resources efficiently to fulfill the unlimited needs of human being.

Meaning of economics . . .
Problems: How to fulfill the unlimited end need while the availability of resources are limited (bagaimana memenuhi kebutuhan yang tidak terbatas, didorong oleh nafsu, sementara alat pemuasnya sumberdaya jmlhnya terbatas).

Meaning of economics . . .
Allocation of natural resources are greatly influenced by the economic behavior of the economic actors. Economics is quite complex because the human behavior is also complicated and is no easy to predict. Every economic actors (for example, consumers), have various wants and wish and they have to choose among thousands of choices.

Meaning of Economics
Other economic actors (producers) have to produce thousands of goods and services and have to decided how many to produce, what kind of and where and when to sell. So, economics is a study of human behavior as economic actors.

Meaning of Economics . . .
In conclusion: economics is concern with how to allocate the limited resources to various alternatives to fulfill the unlimited need of human being. Or To choose among various alternative in order to fulfill the unlimited needs of human being (goods and services).

Economic Models
These complicated phenomena is not possible to learn and investigated thoroughly in details, as it is useless. What we need to learn is the model that can represent the basic and important of economic phenomena in the society (yang diperlukan adalah model sederhana yang dapat mewakili dan menangkap prinsip dasar dari fenomena ekonomi yang terjadi).

Economic Model
Model adalah suatu bentuk hubungan antara dua atau lebih variabel. Atau suatu bentuk penyederhanaan dari fenomena ekonomi yang lebih rumit (complicated). Variabel adalah sesuatu yang mempunyai nilai atau besaran yang dapat diukur dan nilainya bervariasi.

Economic Model
Contoh: kenapa orang cenderung membeli lebih banyak ketika harga murah dan mengurangi pembelian ketika harga mahal? Fenomena ini dapat ditangkap dengan sebuah model permintaan (Demand model).

Economic model
Dalam sebuah model ada suatu asumsi yang sangat penting yaitu: model dibangun dengan berbagai asumsi (anggapan). Salah satu asumsi penting dalam ekonomi adalah prinsip ceteris paribus. Ceteris paribus artinya: suatu keadaan dimana variabel atau factor-faktor lain tidak berubah, kecuali factor yang sedang dianalisis

Three basic economic questions

1. What goods and services should be produced? Determined by consumers, consumer sovereignity. 2. How are goods and services produced? Determined by producers. We assume firm owners and managers are profit maximizer. Thus they have to be efficient, otherwise they go out of business. 3. For whom are goods and services produced? For those who are willing and able to pay for goods and services.

 Question 1 (what) and 2 (how) are related to the positive economics. Question 3 (for whom) is related normative economics. It is highly debatable, involving philosophical and analytical pitfall. The ability to pay is determined by income, while distribution of income among the owner of factor of production is often unfair. Thus it is a matter of moral judgment, and the solution is up to hands of politician, theologians, and interest groups.

Positive economics vs Normative economics

Positive economics: teori yang menerangkan apa adanya bagaimana sumber daya tersebut dialokasikan, bagaimana manusia ber intenteraksi dalam memenuhi kebutuhannya. Dari pengertian ini, ilmu ekonomi itu netral. Normative economics: teori yang telah memasukkan pertimbangan subjektif atau moral (moral judgment). Kenapa alokasi sumber daya dilakukan seperti itu, apa yang bisa dilakukan untuk merobah keadaan menjadi lebih baik. Atau apa yang seharusnya.

Reason and consequences of positive economics

Apa landasan pemikiran filosofis yang melahirkan tingkah laku manusia? Mereka berpendapat: manusia mempunyai sifat alamiah yang tidak bisa dinafikan, dipengaruhi oleh nafsu yaitu: a) Rational, b) Self interest (mementingkan diri sendiri), c) More preferred rather than less (lebih menyukai yang serba lebih dari pada kurang, d) Mempunyai kemampuan yang relative sama paling tidak pada awalnya. Bila asumsi diatas terpenuhi maka akan tercipta masyarakat yang sejahtera. Kenapa?

Economic Actors
There are 5 economic actors: 1. Consumers, 2. Producers, 3. Government, 4. Financial Institutions, and 5. Other countries. Each of these actors have different roles, goal and different constrain.

The role and objective (goal) of consumers

The roles: 1. Buying goods and services that produced by firms or business. 2. Selling production factors (input) to producer (firms, business) in order to get income Goal, objective: To maximize utility (satisfaction) from consuming goods and services, subject to budget constrain.

The role and objective of producer

The roles: 1. Buying production factors (input) from society and turn them into production and services (output) 2. Selling goods and services that have been produced to consumers. Goal, objective : To maximize profit

Consumer theory
Assume there are 2 bundle of goods, X and Y. Based their goal consumers will maximize their satisfaction (Utility) from consuming these 2 bundles of goods, or mathematically: max U (X, Y) However, consumer cannot consume as much as they want, due to a constraint, budget. Assume consumers income is M (money), price of X is Px and price of Y is Py. If they spend all M, we get a budget constraint: M = px X + py Y

Consumer theory
Mathematical solution for the above equation : X = f (px, py, M) Y = f (px, py, M) Meaning : demand for X and Y depend on prices of X, prices of Y and the amount of Income, M.

E
U M

X Utility and Budget curves

Consumer theory
Prices and consumption (demand) is inversely related, as shown by the following curve. Income and consumption (demand) is positively related. Due to prices and income constraint, consumers have to make a rational decision to choose among many alternative choices to fulfill their consumption needs.

Demand curve
Price

Quantity

Demand curve
Price

Px

X1

Demand curve for a given income

Demand curve
Price

Y2
Y1

X1

X2

Demand X1 at income Y1 and Demand X2 at income Y2 for given prices

Production theory
The goal of producers is to maximize profit, given constraints such as resource scarcity, technology, regulation, etc. High profit per unit can be achieved by : raising goods prices or to reduce costs of production. Production plus inventory is supply.

Production theory
Profit = Return (Sale) costs = Return) Costs, or =R-C = (Q*Pq) (Xi*Pxi) Where : R = Return; C = costs Q = output, production; Pq = output prices Xi = input (production factors) Pxi = input prices.

Supply curve

Price and supply inversely related

Nilai (Value) dan Harga (Prices)

Apa itu nilai dan harga barang? Kenapa ada barang yang harganya tinggi dan ada yang rendah? Bahkan ada barang yang sangat diperlukan tetapi tidak ada harganya. Nilai (value) merupakan persepsi manusia tentang makna suatu objek bagi individu tertentu pada tempat dan waktu tertentu Nilai adalah sesuatu yang penting bermanfaat, memberikan kepuasan (satisfaction) kepada pemakainya atau pemiliknya. Sedangkan harga adalah sesuatu yang mempunyai nilai dalam pertukaran. Perbedaan nilai dan harga dapat dilihat pada ilustrasi water-diamond paradox

Sejarah pembantukan Harga

1. Divinely determined; harga dan nilai mempunyai makna yang berbeda dan ditentukan oleh Tuhan. 2. Kegunaan suatu barang. Semakin tinggi gunanya semakin tinggi pula harga. Nilai adalah kegunaan sedangkan harga adalah nilai tukar barang. Perbedan harga dan nilai ini diilustrasikan pada kasus waterdiamond paradox. Diamond sangat tinggi nilai tukarnya atau harganya walaupun nilai kegunaannya rendah, ia hanya digunakan untuk perhiasan saja. Sedangkan air sangat tinggi nilai kegunaanya tetapi nilai tukarnya rendah.

Sejarah pembantukan Harga

3. Labor theory of value memberikan solusi pada waterdiamond paradox. Harga diamond mahal karena perlu lebih banyak tenaga kerja untuk mendapatkannya sedangkan untuk mendapatkan air sangat mudah. Labor theory of value tidak dapat menerangkan fenomena turun naik harga akibat adanya fluktuasi permintaan atau penawaran (supply). Pada musim tertentu harga barang sangat mahal padahal jumlah tenaga kerja yang diperlukan untuk mendapatkannya sama saja. Semua teori diatas telah dibantah oleh teori baru yang disebut dengan teori permintaan dan penawaran. Artinya harga terbentuk dari perpotongan kurva demand dan kurva supply, dan proses ini disebut degnan price determination.

4.

Price Determination
1. Harga ditentukan oleh kekuatan bersama antara konsumen dan produsen (penjual). 2. Selain itu harga juga dipengaruhi oleh bentuk atau struktur Pasar. 3. Sistem ekonomi juga ikut mempengaruhi harga.

Price determination: Market power

Harga ditentukan oleh kekutan produsen dan konsumen, spt pada gambar:

Price

Supply

Demand Quantity

The goal of learning Environmental Economics

To get an understanding of environment from economic perspectives To learn the link between human activities and environment and its sustainability. To change the mind set of people and particularly the decision makers to appreciate the important of environment and the services it provides. Finally to have an friendly environmental policy and program in order to safe the environment and to get the maximum benefit to human kind.

Meaning of Environment
In general, environment refers to the surrounding of physical or non physical object Seperti lingkungan social, lingkungan alam, lingkungan hidup, lingkungan keluarga, dll. Ilmu lingkungan (environmental science) adalah ilmu yang multidisiplin yang menggabungkan berbagai ilmu seperti fisika, kimia, biologi, geology, tanah, dll.

Meaning of Environment
Menurut UU no. 32 tahun 2009, Lingkungan hidup adalah kesatuan ruang dengan semua benda, daya, keadaan, dan makhluk hidup, termasuk manusia dan perilakunya, yang mempengaruhi alam itu sendiri, kelangsungan perikehidupan, dan kesejahteraan manusia serta makhluk hidup lain.

Meaning of Environmental Economics

Environmental economics is the subset of economics that is concerned with the efficient allocation of environmental resources. Or how to allocate scarce natural resources to meet the unlimited need of human being.

Some terminologies
Ecology, a part of environmental science, refers to the study of organisms and their interactions with each other and their environment. Ecosystem is a collection of plants, animals, and micro-organisms interacting with each other and with their non-living environment (CBD 1993).

Some terminologies
Ecosystem is a community of living (biotic) and non-living things (non biotic) that work together. Examples include a rainforest, desert, coral reef, or a cultivated system. A city can be treated as an urban ecosystem.

Evaluation
1. Apa tujuan dan manfaat mempelajari ilmu ekonomi lingkungan ? 2. Apa yang menentukan harga suatu barang ? 3. Apa hubungan harga dengan kerusakan lingkungan ? 4. Ilmu ekonomi lingkungan termasuk kedalam ilmu ekonomi normative, kenapa ?