An oscillator is an electronic system.

It comprises active and passive circuit elements and sinusoidal produces repetitive waveforms at the output without the application of a direct external input signal to the circuit.

Oscillators are classified based on the type of the output waveform. If the generated waveform is sinusoidal or close to sinusoidal (with a certain frequency) then the oscillator is said to be a Sinusoidal Oscillator. If the output waveform is non-sinusoidal, which refers to square/saw-tooth waveforms, the oscillator is said to be a Relaxation Oscillator.

An oscillator has a positive feedback with the loop gain infinite. Feedback-type sinusoidal oscillators can be classified as 1. Tuned circuit oscillator 2. RC Oscillator 3. Crystal oscillator EX: Pierce oscillator 4. Negative resistance Oscillator

Av = A/1-A A=1 A should be 0 or 360

1. 2. 3.

Hartley oscillator Colpitts oscillator Clapp oscillator

The Colpitts oscillator is a type of oscillator that uses an LC circuit in the feedback loop.
The feedback network is made up of a pair of produce a feedback necessary for oscillations.

tapped capacitors (C1 and C2) and an inductor L to

The output voltage is developed across C1. The feedback voltage is developed across C2.

Advantages: Good wave purity Fine performer at high frequency Good stability at high frequency Wide operation range 1 to 60 MHz

Disadvantage Poor isolation (Load impedance v.s. frequency) Hard to design

Typical Uses of the Oscillator Radio and television stations require oscillators to develop the basic signal to transmit their information

Cell phones, electronic keyboards, and remote controls use oscillators to produce the required frequencies for operation

The basic RC Oscillator which is also known as a Phase-shift Oscillator, produces a sine wave output signal using regenerative feedback obtained from the resistor-capacitor combination. This regenerative feedback from the RC network is due to the ability of the capacitor to store an electric charge, (similar to the LC tank circuit).

C
V1 I1 ( R jX C ) I 2 R 0 I1 R 0 I 2 (2 R jX C ) I 3 R I2R
R 2 R jX C R

C R I2

C Vo R I3 R

V1
I 3 (2 R jX C )

I1

Solve for I3, we get

R jX C R 0 V1 0 0

I3

R jX C R 0

R 2 R jX C R

0 R 2 R jX C

V1R 2 I3 ( R jX C )[(2R jX C ) 2 R 2 ] R 2 (2R jX C )

Advantages of Wien-Bridge Oscillator: 1. The frequency of oscillation can be easily varied just by changing RC network 2. High gain due to two-stage amplifier 3. Stability is high Disadvantages of Wien-Bridge Oscillator The main disadvantage of the Wien-bridge oscillator is that a high frequency of oscillation cannot be generated

Most communications and digital applications require the use of oscillators with extremely stable output. Crystal oscillators are invented to overcome the output fluctuation experienced by conventional oscillators. Crystals used in electronic applications consist of a quartz wafer held between two metal plates and housed in a a package as shown in Fig. 9 (a) and (b).

Piezoelectric Effect
The quartz crystal is made of silicon oxide (SiO2) and exhibits a property called the piezoelectric
When a changing an alternating voltage is applied across the crystal, it vibrates at the frequency of the applied voltage. In the other word, the frequency of the applied ac voltage is equal to the natural resonant frequency of the crystal. The thinner the crystal, higher its frequency of vibration. This phenomenon is called piezoelectric effect

Characteristic of Quartz Crystal The crystal can have two resonant frequencies; One is the series resonance frequency f1 which occurs when XL = XC. At this frequency, crystal offers a very low impedance to the external circuit where Z = R. R L C CM

The other is the parallel resonance (or antiresonance) frequency f2 which occurs when reactance of the series leg equals the reactance of CM. At this frequency, crystal offers a very high impedance to the external circuit

The crystal is connected as a series element in the feedback path from collector to the base so that it is excited in the series-resonance mode

BJT FET

 Since, in series resonance, crystal impedance is the smallest that causes

the crystal provides the largest positive feedback.

Resistors R1, R2, and RE provide a voltage-divider stabilized dc bias circuit. Capacitor CE provides ac bypass of the emitter resistor, RE to avoid degeneration. The RFC coil provides dc collector load and also prevents any ac signal from entering the dc supply. The coupling capacitor CC has negligible reactance at circuit operating frequency but blocks any dc flow between collector and base. The oscillation frequency equals the series-resonance frequency of the crystal and is given by:

1 fo 2 LCC

The unijunction transistor can be used in what is called a relaxation oscillator as shown by basic circuit as follow. The unijunction oscillator provides a pulse signal suitable for digital-circuit applications. Resistor RT and capacitor CT are the timing components that set the circuit oscillating rate

Sawtooth wave appears at the emitter of the transistor. This wave shows the gradual increase of capacitor voltage

TUNED AMPLIFIER AND POWER AMPLIFIER

The double tuned amplifiers provide a wider bandwidth, flatter pass band and a greater selectivity.

Stagger Tuned Amplifiers are used to improve the overall frequency response of tuned Amplifiers. Stagger tuned Amplifiers are usually designed so that the overall response exhibits maximal flatness around the centre frequency. It needs a number of tuned circuit operating in union. The overall frequency response of a Stagger tuned amplifier is obtained by adding the induvidual response together. Since the resonant Frequencies of different tuned circuits are displaced or staggered, they are referred as STAGGER TUNED AMPLIFIER.

The main advantage of stagger tuned amplifier is INCREASED BANDWIDTH. Its Drawback is Reduced Selectivity and critical tuning of many tank circuits. They are used in RF amplifier stage in Radio Receivers

Common-emitter amplifiers and operational amplifiers require high impedance loads. To drive low impedance loads, a power output stage is required. Designs vary in complexity, linearity and efficiency. Power dissipation and thermal effects must be considered.

Properties of Power Amplifier Stage :

Low voltage gain (usually unity). High current gain. Low output impedance. High input impedance.

Power Amplifiers are used in the transmitter There are different classes for the power amplifier Class A, Class B, Class AB, Class C, Class D and Class E Those amplifier differs in their angle of conduction, efficiency, linearity and the in the amount of distortion they introduce to the system

Class A The amplifier conducts through the full 360 of the input. The Q-point is set near the middle of the load line. Class B The amplifier conducts through 180 of the input. The Q-point is set at the cutoff point.

Class

AB This is a compromise between the class A and B amplifiers. The amplifier conducts somewhere between 180 and 360 . The Q-point is located between the mid-point and cutoff. Class C The amplifier conducts less than 180 of the input. The Q-point is located below the cutoff level.

Class

D This is an amplifier that especially for digital signals.

is

biased

In class B, the transistor is biased just off. The AC signal turns the transistor on. The transistor only conducts when it is turned on by one-half of the AC cycle. In order to get a full AC cycle out of a class B amplifier, you need two transistors: An npn transistor that provides the negative half of the AC cycle A pnp transistor that provides the positive half.

Since one part of the circuit pushes the signal high during one halfcycle and the other part pulls the signal low during the other half cycle, the circuit is referred to as a push-pull circuit

During the positive half-cycle of the AC input, transistor Q1 (npn) is conducting and Q2 (pnp) is off. During the negative half-cycle of the AC input, transistor Q2 (pnp) is conducting and Q1 (npn) is off

Each transistor produces one-half of an AC cycle. The transformer combines the two outputs to form a full AC cycle.

No need for bulky transformer Transistor used as a phase splitter(180 degree phase shift)

This circuit uses both npn and pnp transistor to construct class B amplifier as shown to the left One disadvantage of this circuit is the need for two separate voltage supplies

If the transistors Q1 and Q2 do not turn on and off at exactly the same time, then there is a gap in the output voltage

Tank circuit
C CC B RB VBB E
The transistor is off for most of the input cycle and the conduction angle is small.

A switch-mode amplifier uses a rectangular input signal to drive the transistor rapidly between cutoff and saturation. The efficiency is very high Class D amplifiers

C B RB E