Essential Nutrients

and their Metabolism

Nutrition
• A process by
which food is
taken into and
used by the
body.
• Includes
digestion,
absorption,
transport, and
metabolism.
• Study of food
and drink
requirements
for normal body
function
 Nutrients

• Chemicals
taken into the
body that
provide energy
and building
blocks for new
molecules.
• 3 Major Functions:
• Providing energy for body processes and
movement
• Providing structural material for body
tissues.
• Regulating body processes.
6 Major Classes of Nutrients:
*Macronutrients
(broken down by
enzymes)
a. Carbohydrates
b. Protein
c. Lipids
*Micronutrients (not
being broken down)
a. Vitamins
b. Minerals
c. Water
Essential nutrients

Body cannot manufacture them

or is unable to manufacture
adequate amounts of them.
 Calorie

Amount of energy (heat)

necessary to raise the
temperature of 1gram of
water 1˚C
 CARBOHYDRATES
(60% of daily kilocaloric intake)
FUNCTIONS:
- ENERGY (4
calories/gram)
- Cell
Maintenance
- Heat Generation
- Regulation of
Fat &Protein
Metabolism
Simple
Carbohydrates
(Simple Sugars):

Monosaccharides
and

Disaccharides
Complex
Carbohydrates:

Polysacchrides
FIBER
FUNCTIONS:
- Binds with water to allow
food residue to pass more
quickly through the
intestinal tract
- Binds with carcinogens
- Binds to cholesterol
FUNCTIONS:

- Binds with
water to allow
food residue to
pass more
quickly through
the intestinal
tract
- Binds with
carcinogens
- Binds to
cholesterol
• Starch- energy-storage in plants
• Glycogen- energy-storage
• Lactose- from animals
• Glucose – from plants
• Fructose – from fruits and berries
• Sucrose – from sugarcane and sugar
beets
• Maltose- from germinating cereals
Glucose
• It is absorbed directly from the digestive tract or
synthesized by the liver
• Primary energy source for most cell, which use the
energy derived from broken down of glucose to
produce ATP
• Forms deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic
acid (RNA), and ATP molecules.
• Combines with proteins to form glycoproteins which
function as receptor molecules on surface of
plasma membrane.
• Its excess in the blood following a meal can be
used to form glycogen or it can be partially broken
down, and the components to form fat.
Glycogen
• A short-term energy
storage molecule,
which can only be
stored by the body in
limited amounts .
• Can be rapidly
converted back to
glucose when
energy is needed.
• Most of it was stored
in skeletal muscle
and liver.
LIPIDS
FUNCTIONS:

• ENERGY (9 calories/gram)
• A long-term energy storage molecule,
which can only be stored in the body in
large amounts.
• Supply Essential Fatty Acids and Carry
Fat Soluble Vitamins (A,D,E, & K)
• Shock Absorption
• Surrounds, pads and protects organs
• Act as an insulator, which helps to
reduce heat loss.
Triglycerides or Triacylglycerols
• The most common type of lipid
in the diet.
• Accounts 95% of the total lipid
intake
• Can be used to produce ATP
• Delivers over twice as many
calories as does a gram of
carbohydrate or protein.
Saturated Fats
• Fatty acids have
only single
covalent bonds
between
carbons
• Solid at room
temperature
• Animal origin
• Raise blood
cholesterol level
 • Have one
(monounsaturated)
Unsaturated Fats or more
(polyunsaturated)
doubles bonds.
• Liquid at room
temperature
• Plant origin
• Lower blood
cholesterol level
Lipoproteins

• transport fats in the blood (HDL - "good",

LDL - "bad")
Steroids and
Phospholipids

• (part of the cell membrane and

are used to construct myelin
sheaths around the axons of
nerve cells)

• accounts 5% of the total lipid

intake
Cholesterol
• Derived fats
• A steroid found in high concentrations in
the brain, liver, and egg yolks
• Present in whole milk, cheese, butter and
meats.
• Component of cell membrane
• Can be modified to form other useful
molecules such as Bile salts (emulsify fats)
and Steroid hormones (includes sex
hormones).
• Contributes to Cardiovascular disease.
 Lecithin
• A phospholipid which accounts as
a major component of cell
membranes
• A good source is egg yolks.
• Found in bile and helps emulsify
fats
Linoleic acid and
Alpha linoleic acid
• Essential fatty acids as they
cannot be synthesized by the
body.
• Found in plant oils, such as
canola or soybean oils.
• Can be converted to
Arachidonic acid (used to
produce prostaglandins that
increase blood clotting.)
• Can be converted to
Eicosapenaenoic acid or EPA
(used to produce prostaglandins
that decrease blood clotting.)
that are found in herring, tuna,
and sardines.
• Individuals who eat this from
certain foods for two times or
more times a week have a lower
risk or heart attack because of
reduced blood clotting.
 PROTEINS
(10% of daily
kilocaloric intake)
• Chains of amino acids
• Our body can manufacture 12
of the 20 amino acids but the
other 8 must be obtained in
the food we eat.
FUNCTIONS:
- ENERGY (4
calories/gram)
- Part of Hormones,
Antibodies &
Enzymes
- Fluid Balance
- Build and Repair
Tissues
- Ion channels,
carrier molecules,
and receptor
molecules in the
cell membrane
• Collagen- provides structural strength in
connective tissue, as does keratin in the skin.
• Actin and Myosin- makes muscle contraction
possible.
• Enzymes- are responsible for regulating the rate
of chemical reactions in the body.
• Protein hormones- regulate many physiological
processes.
• Proteins in blood- act as clotting factors,
transport molecules, and buffers.
• Antibodies and Lymphokines- function in the
immune system
Complete protein foods
• Contains all eight essential
amino acids in the needed
proportions.
• Can be obtained in animal
proteins whereas tend to be
incomplete in plant proteins
VITAMINS
• Organic molecules that exist in
minute quantities in food.
• Not broken down by catabolism
but are used by the body in their
original or slightly modified forms.
• After its chemical structure
destroyed, its function is lost.
FUNCTIONS:
• Normal Metabolism
• Normal Growth
• Normal Development
 Coenzymes

• Combine with enzymes to make the enzymes

functional
Examples:
• Vitamins B2 and B3 biotin, and Pantothenic
acid (critical for some of the chemical
reactions involved in the production of ATP)
• Folate and Vitamin B12 (for nucleic acid
synthesis)
• Vitamins a, B1, B6, B12, C, and D (for growth)
• Vitamin K (for blood clotting)
 Fat-soluble vitamins

• Are absorbed from the

intestine along with lipids.
• It is possible to accumulate
in the body to the point of
toxicity.
Water-soluble vitamins

• Are absorbed with water from

the intestinal tract and typically
remain in the body only a short
time before being excreted in
the urine.
 Provitamin
• A part of a vitamin that can be
assembled or modified by the body
into a functional vitamin.
• Example:
• Beta carotene is an example that can
be modified by the body to form
vitamin A.
• 7-dehydrocholesterol can be
converted to vitamin D.
• Tryptophan can be converted to
niacin.
Free Radicals
• are molecules,
produced as a part
of normal
metabolism, that
are missing an
electron.
• can replace the
missing electron by
taking an electron
from cell molecules,
such as fats,
proteins, or DNA,
resulting in damage
to the cell.
Antioxidants
• are substances that
prevent oxidation of
cell components by
donating an
electron to free
radicals.
Examples are beta
carotene
(provitamin A),
vitamin C, and
Vitamin E.
MINERALS
• inorganic nutrients that are essential for
normal metabolic functions.
• taken into the body by themselves or in
combination with organic molecules.
• 4-5% of the total body weight
Example:
• Women who suffer from excessive
menstrual bleeding may need an iron
supplement.
FUNCTIONS:
• Water Balance
• Acid-Base Balance
• Resting membrane potentials
and generating action
potentials
• Adding mechanical strength
to bones and teeth
• Acting as coenzyme, buffers,
or regulators of osmotic
pressure
• Regulate Tissue Excitability
• Blood Clotting
• Heart Rhythm Regulation
• Macrominerals
• -those that people that require daily
in amounts over 100mg
• Examples are Calcium, Phosphorus,
Sodium, Potassium, Magnesium,
Chloride, and Sulfur.
• Microminerals
• -those that people that require daily in
amounts less than 100mg
• Examples are Iron, Zinc, Manganese,
Iodine, Fluoride, Copper, Cobalt,
Chromium , and Selenium.
 WATER
(Body weight is 70%)
FUNCTIONS:
• Most basic nutrient
need
• Involved in almost
every vital part of the
body's processes
“Eight glasses of fluids
daily”
METABOLISM

• The total of all the

chemical reactions
that occur in the
body.
Anabolism
• Energy–requiring process
by which small molecules
are joined to form larger
ones.
• It occurs in all cells of the
body as they divide to form
new cells, maintain their
own intracellular structure,
and produce molecules
such as hormones,
neurotransmitter, or extra
cellular matrix molecules
for export.
Catabolism
• Energy-releasing process by
which large molecules are
broken down in smaller ones.
• It begins during the process of
digestion and is concluded
within individuals cells.
• Cellular Metabolism-
chemical reactions
that occur within
cells.
• ATP– energy
currency of the cell.
• Biochemical Pathway
– series of chemical
reaction which
controls the energy
release from
molecules.
 Regulation of Enzymes
in several ways:
Enzymes Synthesis
• Their synthesis depends on DNA.
Thus, it is under genetic control.
Receptor–mediated enzyme activity
• The combination of a chemical signal
can activate or inhibit enzyme
activity.
Production Control of enzyme activity
• The end product of a biochemical
pathway can inhibit the enzyme
responsible for the first reaction in
the pathway (a negative – feedback
regulation that prevents
accumulation of the intermediate
products and the end product of the
pathway.)
CARBOHYDRATE
METABOLISM
 Glycolysis
• Breakdown of
glucose to two
pyruvic acid
molecules.
• Two ATP molecules
are used and four
ATP molecules are
produced, for a net
gain of two ATP
molecules.
Carrier molecule
• Functions to move the
H and electrons to
other parts of the cell.
• Example is
nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide (NADH)
which can be used in
other chemical
reactions or in the
production of ATP
molecules in the
electron-transport
chain.
 • The breakdown of
Anaerobic glucose in the
absence of
Respiration oxygen that yields
two ATP
• Takes place when
the amount of
oxygen are limited
• Functions to
quickly produce
few ATP
molecules for a
short time.
2 Phases of Anaerobic Respiration:
1. Glycolysis
2. Lactic acid formation
- Conversion of pyruvic
acid to lactic acid.
- Requires input of energy
from the NADH produced
in Phase1.
Lactic Acid
• Transported by the blood to the
liver
• As oxygen becomes available in
the liver, it can be converted
through a series of chemical
reactions into glucose.
Aerobic Respiration

• The breakdown of glucose in the

presence of oxygen that yields
carbon dioxide, water, and 38
molecules of ATP.
 4 Phases of Aerobic Respiration:
• Glycolysis (Anaerobic)
2. Acetyl-coenzyme A formation
a. Each pyruvic acid move from the cytoplasm into a mitochondrion
to form carbon dioxide and two-carbon acetyl group
b. Hydrogen ions were released to produce NADH.
3. Citric acid cycle (Kreb’s cycle)
a. Acetyl-CoA combines with four carbon molecule to form a six-
carbon citric acid molecule, which enters the citric acid cycle.
b. The six-carbon citric acid molecule is converted, in a number of
steps, into four-carbon molecules
c. It can then combine with another acetyl-CoA molecule to form
another citric acid molecule, and reinitiate the cycle.
d. Two carbon atoms are used to form carbon dioxide; and energy,
H, and electrins are released. They are used to produce ATP,
NADH and another carrier molecule flavin adenine dinucleotide
(FADH2).
4. Electron-transport chain
a. A series of electron transport molecules
attached to the inner mitochondrial membrane.
b. Electrons are transferred from NADH and
FADH2 to the electron transport carriers, and H
released into the inner mitochondrial
compartment. Some are also H pumps, which
use some of the energy from the transported
electrons to pump H from inner to outer
mitochondrial compartment.
c. The H passes through special channels in the
inner mitochondrial membrane that couple the
movement of the H to ATP production.
d. Two H and two electrons combine with an O2
atom to form H2O.
 38 ATP
• 2 are produced in
glycolysis, 2 in
citric acid cycle,
and 34 are formed
through the
electron-transport
chain.
• It is the total
number of ATP
formed in liver,
kidneys, and heart,
where 3 ATP are
produced for each
NADH molecule.
36 ATP • Two NADH produced
by glycolysis (that
cannot cross the inner
mitochondrial
membrane) donates a
shuttle molecule that
carries the electrons to
the electron-transport
chain.
• It is the total number of
ATP formed in skeletal
muscle and in the
brain, where 2 ATP are
produced for each
NADH.
LIPID METABOLISM
• Two carbon atoms are removed from the end of
a fatty acid chain to form acetyl-CoA.
• Carbon atoms are removed two at a time until
the entire fatty acid chain is converted into
acetyl-CoA.
• Acetyl-CoA can enter the citric acid cycle and
be used to generate ATP. In liver, two acetyl-
CoA molecules can also combine to form
ketones.
• Ketones are released into the blood and travel
to other tissues, especially skeletal muscle.
• In this tissues, the ketones are converted back
to acetyl-CoA (can now enter the citric acid
cycle to produce ATP.
PROTEIN METABOLISM
• Amino acids are used primarily to synthesize needed
proteins and oonly secondarily as a source of energy.

Two ways to use amino acids as source of energy:

• It can be converted into the molecules of carbohydrate
metabolism, such as pyruvic acid and acetyl-CoA.
b. The amine group can be removed from the amino acid,
leaving ammonia and an α-keto acid where NADH
(can enter the electron-transport chain to produce
ATP) is produced.
– Ammonia is toxic to cells, so it is converted by liver
to urea.
– Keto acid can enter the citric acid cycle or can be
converted into pyruvic acid, acetyl-CoA, or glucose.
METABOLIC STATES
2 Major Metabolic States:
1. Absorptive state- the period immediately after
meal when nutrients are being absorbed
through the intestinal wall into the circulatory
and lymphatic systems.
- Usually lasts about 4hours after each meal.
* Glucose enters the circulation to be used by
cells to provide the energy they require
* The remainder of glucose is converted into
glycogen or fats.
* Most of the absorbed fats are deposited in
adipose tissue.
* Absorbed amino acids are used in protein
synthesis, used for energy, or enter the liver
and are converted to fats or carbohydrates.
2. Post-absorptive state- occurs late in the morning, late in
the afternoon, or during the night after each absorptive
state is concluded.
* Glycogen stored in the liver is the first source of blood
glucose which can provide glucose for about 4hours.
* Blood glucose levels are maintained by the
conversion of other molecules to glucose.
* The glycerol from triglycerides can be converted to
glucose
* The fatty acids from fat can be converted to acetyl-
CoA, moved into citric acid cycle, and used as a
source of energy. This can partly eliminate the need to
use glucose for energy, resulting in reduced glucose
removal from the blood and maintaining blood glucose
levels at homeostatic levels.