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Blood
Part 1
Joanna Komorowski, Ph.D.
Blood is slightly alkaline (pH = 7.35-7.45 Its temperature = ~ 38C (somewhat higher than body temp.) 8% body weight (5-6 L ; 4-5 L )
Functions of blood
Transport (distribution): - O2, nutrients - CO2, metabolites, nitrogenous waste products - hormones Regulation: - body temperature - pH - fluid volume Protection: - prevention of blood loss - prevention of infections (antibodies, complement proteins)
Blood
Blood plasma 90% water Contains solutes: nutrients, respiratory gases, hormones, electrolytes, proteins (albumin, globulins), and wastes (e.g., byproducts of protein breakdown)
Formed elements Erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets Erythrocytes and platelets do not divide!!
Erythrocytes
Structure & basic characteristics Small biconcave cells that lack nucleus and organelles Contain protein spectrin that helps RBC to be flexible, change shape, and squeeze through narrow capillaries
Huge
surface area for gas exchange High hemoglobin content Anaerobic metabolism sparing O2 consumption
Figure 17.3
Hemoglobin (Hb)
Hemoglobin is made up of four protein globin subunits, each bound to the iron binding red heme pigment Each iron atom can combine reversibly with one molecule of oxygen (4 per Hb molecule; each RBC contains 250 million Hb molecules!!) Each globin molecule is made of 2 and 2 polypeptide subunits Hemoglobin carrying O2 = oxyhemoglobin Hemoglobin carrying CO2 = carbaminohemoglobin O2 combines with heme group, but CO2 combines with globin part
Erythropoietin Erythroblasts
Reticulocytes
Erythropoesis
Fig. 17.5
15 days
The appearance of the membrane surface receptors for specific growth factors and hormones that push the cell towards specialization
RBC development
EPO production can result from: blood content, e.g., hemorrhage Insufficient Hb per RBC O2 availability
Athletes & EPO abuse: can increase hematocrit from 45% to 65%; BUT increased viscosity plus dehydration during race can clotting, stroke, heart failure
Most hemoglobin degradation in the macrophages of the spleen Iron is reused Heme is reduced to bilirubin and eventually converted to urobilinogen metabolised by bacteria to stercobillin an excreted in feces
Iron is transported by transferrin and stored inside cells as protein-iron complex ferritin and hemosiderin
If the body does not need iron, it is stored in the mucosal cells and lost when these cells die and are slough
Iron
Found in every living cell Occurs in foods in various forms Heme iron (in hemoglobin and myoglobin) is found in: - organ meats (liver, heart, kidney) - red meet (beef, pork, veal, lamb) - fish (clams, oysters, sardines) - poultry
Iron, cont.
Non-heme iron (all iron found in vegetables, grains and supplements): - legumes, dry fruits, enriched cereals and pasta - dark green leafy vegetables, eggs There is more iron in meat than in plant foods!! Heme iron is absorbed more readily!!!
Iron in foods
Be aware that some foods interfere with non-hem iron absorption (excess bran,
strongly brewed tea, oregano)
Only take iron supplements at the advice of a dietitian or physician Cook foods in black cast iron pots and pans
Folate is necessary for the formation of all new cells including RBC!!!
Folate, cont.
Found mainly in dark green, leafy vegetables, liver, legumes, fortified cereals Folate from eggs, dried beans and oranges not as well absorbed Milk increases folate absorption!!
Cooking and storage destroy as much as 50%-90% of folate in foods Of all vitamins, most likely to interfere with medications (e.g.,antiacids, aspirine and its relatives, anticonvulsants, oral contraceptives diminish use by the body) Recommended dose for adults 400 microgram/day
Folate deficiency
Folate deficiency can result from: - insufficient intake and/or absorption (e.g., alcoholism, Crohns disease, anorexia, bulimia)
- increased requirements (pregnancy, lactation) - insufficient utilization due to other factors such as vitamin B-12 deficiency
Vitamin B12
Vitamin B-12 is required for the production of red blood cells (it helps in recycling of folate coenzymes), for the maintenance of the sheets surrounding and protecting nerve fibers
Found mainly in animal products such as meat (especially organ meats), poultry, seafood and eggs but also in fortified cereals and milk About 50% of Vitamin B-12 is absorbed by healthy adults Pernicious anemia (pernicious means leading to death) an autoimmune disorder related to production of the intrinsic factor, needed for transport and absorption of Vitamin B12
RBC disorders
Anemia
Deficit of RBC Low Hb levels Possible low ferritin levels Abnormal Hb (Sickle cell anemia, Thallasemia)
Polycythemia
High RBC count Can be caused by: EPO doping, low atmospheric oxygen, dehydration, etc.
Anemia = the most common disorder of the blood impairment in oxygen availability hypoxia
Anemia
Causes of anemia
1. An insufficient number of RBC Hemorrhagic anemias Aplastic anemias (destruction or inhibition of red bone marrow) 2. Low Hb content Microcytic anemia - iron deficiency anemia (also vitamin B6 deficit) Megaloblastic anemia - folate deficiency - vitamin B12 deficiency (pernicious anemia) 3. Abnormal hemoglobin Thallasemias Sickle cell anemias
Sports anemia
Occurs in athletes early in training program, especially after a rest period or injury or after an endurance phase of training Is not related to genuine iron deficiency but is mainly due to expanded plasma volume The phenomenon is usually transitory Does not require iron supplements
Hematocrit
Thallasemia
Thalassemias (Greek ="sea") underproduction of one of the globin chains leading to abnormal hemoglobin formation and decreased RBCs survival rates; one of the most frequent inherited disorders worldwide; transmitted in an autosomal recessive fashion
Two types of thallasemia depending on whether there is a deficient synthesis of the alpha or beta globin chains of hemoglobin: alpha-thalassemia and beta-thalassemia
Thalassemia major
Thalassemia minor
Two factors contribute to thalassemia-related anemias: - Reduction in the synthesis of hemoglobin - Imbalance in the production of the hemoglobin chains
Thallasemia
A person can be heterozygous and have a minor form, or homozygous with the associated major form of the disease -talssemia is particularly prelevant in Asian population Usually patients with - thalassemia have silent or mild to moderate signs and symptoms (infants with Barts pale, edematous, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, ascites) Diagnosis is confirmed by electrophoresis of hemoglobin
- Thallasemia
- thalssemia is found mainly in people of Mediterranean descent (Greek islands, Italy) but is also found in Middle East and parts of India and Pakistan Signs and symptoms of - thalssemia: skull bone deformities Mongoloid faces bowing and rarefaction ( bone density) of long bones extension of bone marrow into paraspinal and intraabdominal tumours jaundice hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, cardiac failure, hypogonadism, etc.
Iron toxicity in thallasemia major: hemochromatosis = iron overload due to repeated blood transfusions, saturation of iron-binding proteins and of hemosiderin in the liver tissue (can be treated by periodic blood removal or drugs enhancing excretion)
The most common, and most severe form, is the sickle cell anemia, very frequent among Blacks from the sub-Sahara Africa (9-10% are gene carriers)
Mechanism of sickling
Abnormal hemoglobins are characterised by the replacement of an amino acid in one of the chains, secondary to a mutation of a base on the DNA
Sickle-cell anemia
Complications: vascular occlusion, venous thrombosis, arterial emboli, cardiac failure, renal failure, frequent, often serious, even lethal infections (following splenic atrophy), retinopathies (due to microthrombosis), pregnancy accidents Acute episode of hemolytic or vascular crisis
New treatment strategies include bone marrow stem cell transplantations that may offer a cure in some cases; inhalation of nitirous oxide (dilate blood vessels); switching back on fetal hemoglobin production (it does not sickle)
IMPORTANT: Avoid dehydration, infections, fever, acidosis, hypoxemia and cold exposure
Polycythemia
Polycythemia
Red cell mass
Increased Normal relative polycythemia, e.g. due to dehydration Primary (Polycytemia vera)
secondary