Chapters 25 & 26

Nutrition and Consumption

Kevin Yocum Fall 2013

Objectives for 25.6

Describe how macromolecules are chemically digested. Understand the enzymes involved in chemical digestion. Describe how each type of nutrient is absorbed in the small intestine.

Carbohydrates
Starch
Oligosaccharide
Maltose (Di-)
Glucose (Mono-)

Enzymes
Amylase Dextrinase Maltase Glucoamylase Sucrase and lactase
Notes: From Saladin 6th Ed.

Monosaccharide Absorption

Fig. 25.28

Notes: From Saladin 6th Ed.

Proteins
Amino acids come from: 1.Dietary protein 2.Digested digestive enzymes 3.Sloughed epithelial cells from enzymes

Protein Enzymes
Proteases or Peptidases Begins in the stomach
Pepsin

Continues in the small intestine

Trypsin and chymotrypsin Carboxypeptidase Aminopeptidase Dipeptidase

P R O T E I N
Fig. 25.29
Notes: From Saladin 6th Ed.

Lipids
Lipases
Lingual (Mouth) Gastric (Stomach) Pancreatic (Small intestines)

Emulsification
Bile acids and lecithin Micelles

Chylomicrons and lacteals

L I P I D S
Fig. 25.30

Vitamins and Minerals

Fat-soluble vitamins
A, D, E, K

Water-soluble vitamins
B-complex and C, except B-12 Simple diffusion

Minerals
Absorbed along the entire small intestine Sodium, potassium, magnesium, zinc, calcium, iron

Water
GI tract receives 9 L of water per day
8 L absorbed by SI .8 L absorbed by LI .2 L voided during defecation

Diarrhea
LI absorbs too little water Bacteria problems or high lactose

Constipation
LI absorbs too much water Lack of fiber and exercise, high stress, laxative abuse

Checkpoint Questions
Carbohydrate digestion is performed by enzymes collectively known as ________. Protein digestion begins in the _______. ____ emulsifies lipids and enables fat digestion to occur.

Checkpoint Answers
Carbohydrate digestion is performed by enzymes collectively known as amylases. Protein digestion begins in the stomach. Bile emulsifies lipids and enables fat digestion to occur.

Objectives for 26.1

Describe factors that regulate hunger and satiety. Define nutrient and name the 6 categories of nutrients. State the function, required amounts, and source of each macronutrient. Understand lipoproteins. Name the major vitamins and minerals

Appetite
Short-term regulators
Ghrelin Peptide YY (PYY) Cholecystokinin (CCK)

Long-term regulators
Leptin Insulin

Figure 26.1

A p p e t i t e
Fig. 26.1
Notes: From Saladin 6th Ed.

Nutrients and Calories

Carbohydrates = 4 kcal/g Proteins = 4 kcal/g Lipids = 9 kcal/g

Notes: From Saladin 6th Ed.

Carbohydrates
440 g in the body
325 g is muscle glycogen 90-100 is liver glycogen 15-20 is blood glucose

Daily requirement
125-175 g

Forms of Carbohydrates
1. Polysaccharides
Starch Sucrose, lactose, maltose Glucose, galactose, fructose Honey!!!

2. Disaccharides
3. Monosaccharides

Glycemic Index
Effect of ingested carbohydrate on blood glucose Glycemic index over 70 is high
White bread, white rice, white potatoes, cereals High insulin demands

Glycemic index under 55 is low

Fruits and vegetables, legumes, whole grains

Dietary Fiber
Plant and animal matter that resists digestion RDA is 30 g/day Water-soluble
Pectin

Water-insoluble
Cellulose

Lipids
Stored energy Hydrophobic 30% of caloric intake Cholesterol
300 mg/day

Essential fatty acids

Linoleic acid

Lipid Sources
Saturated fats
Animal origin Meat, egg yolks, dairy Coconut and palm oils

Unsaturated fats
Nuts, seeds, vegetable oils

Cholesterol and Lipoproteins

Lipoproteins
Core of triglycerides and cholesterol Coating of proteins and phospholipids

1.Chylomicrons 2.High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) 3.Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) 4.Very low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs)

Fig. 26.2

Lipoprotein Processing

Notes: From Saladin 6th Ed.

Proteins
Fibrous
Collagen, elastin, keratin

Globular
Antibodies, hormones, hemoglobin, myoglobin, enzymes, albumin, buffers

RDA is 44-60 g/day 20 Amino acids

8 essential amino acids

Protein Sources
Animal proteins
Meat, eggs, and dairy

Non-animal proteins
Beans, rice, legumes, soy

Nitrogen balance
Rate of ingestion = Rate of excretion Negative balance if excretion exceeds ingestion

Minerals

Notes: From Saladin 6th Ed.

Notes: From Saladin 6th Ed.

Vitamins

Notes: From Saladin 6th Ed.

Notes: From Saladin 6th Ed.

Checkpoint Questions
Two long-term appetite regulating hormones are _____________. Water-insoluble dietary fiber comes in the form of _______. __________ have a core of triglycerides and cholesterol.

Checkpoint Answers
Two long-term appetite regulating hormones are leptin and insulin. Water-insoluble dietary fiber comes in the form of cellulose. Lipoproteins have a core of triglycerides and cholesterol.

Objectives for 26.2

Describe the principle reactants and products of each step of glucose oxidation. Contrast anaerobic fermentation and aerobic respiration. Explain where and how cells produce ATP. Describe production and function of glycogen.

Glucose Catabolism
1. Glycolysis
Splits 1 glucose into 2 pyruvates Reduces pyruvate to lactic acid

2. Anaerobic fermentation 3. Aerobic respiration

Oxidizes pyruvic acid into CO2 and H2O.

NAD and FAD from B vitamins

Coenzymes

Glycolysis
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Phosphorylation Priming Cleavage Oxidation Dephosphorylation

Notes: From Saladin 6th Ed.

Anaerobic Fermentation
Does the demand for ATP exceed the supply of O2? Lactic acid

Notes: From Saladin 6th Ed.

Aerobic Respiration
Matrix reactions
Citric acid (Krebs) cycle Figure 26.4

Membrane reactions
Electron transport chain
Figure 26.5

Chemiosmotic mechanism
Figure 26.6

Matrix Reactions
Fig. 26.4

Notes: From Saladin 6th Ed.

Fig. 26.4

Notes: From Saladin 6th Ed.

Electron-Transport Chain

Fig. 26.5

Notes: From Saladin 6th Ed.

Chemiosmotic Mechanism

Fig. 26.6

Notes: From Saladin 6th Ed.

ATP Production Overview

Fig. 26.7

Summary of Glucose Catabolism

Glycogen Metabolism

Glucose Storage and Use

Fig. 26.8

Checkpoint Questions
________ splits a glucose molecule into two pyruvic acids. Most ATP is generated in the __________ of a cell. During the complete oxidation of glucose, how many ATP per glucose molecule are produced?

Checkpoint Answers
Glycolysis splits a glucose molecule into two pyruvic acids. Most ATP is generated in the mitochondria of a cell. During the complete oxidation of glucose, how many ATP per glucose molecule are produced? 36-38 ATP

Objectives for 26.3

Describe the processes of lipid catabolism and anabolism. Describe the processes of protein catabolism and anabolism. Explain the metabolic source of ammonia and how the body disposes of it.

Lipids
Lipogenesis
PGAL Glycerol

Lipolysis
Triglyceride Glycerol and fatty acids Beta oxidation Ketogenesis

Lipolysis and Lipogenesis

Fig. 26.9

Proteins
Processes of amino acid conversion: 1.Deamination 2.Amination 3.Transamination
Amino group (-NH2) Ammonia (NH3) Urea cycle
NH3 + CO2 = Urea

Figure 26.10

Amino Acid Metabolism

Fig. 26.10

Checkpoint Questions
_________ involves hydrolysis of a triglyceride into glycerol and fatty acids. The removal of an amino group during amino acid conversion is called __________. In the urea cycle, the liver combines _______ and CO2 to produce urea.

Checkpoint Answers
Lipogenesis involves hydrolysis of a triglyceride into glycerol and fatty acids. The removal of an amino group during amino acid conversion is called deamination. In the urea cycle, the liver combines ammonia and CO2 to produce urea.

References
Saladin, Kenneth (2012). Anatomy and Physiology, The Unity of Form and Function, Sixth Ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.