PHL100: Electromagnetic Waves and

Quantum Mechanics
Examinations:
1. Minor I: 25 Marks
2. Minor II: 25 Marks
3. Major: 50 Marks

Books:
1. Introduction to Electrodynamics by David Griffiths
2. Introduction to Quantum Mechanics by David Griffiths
3. Quantum Mechanics by Robert Eisberg and Robert Resnick

Teachers:

1. Prof. B.D. Gupta 2. Dr. Kedar Khare 3. Prof. Ajit Kumar
Course up to Minor I
Electric and magnetic field vectors in a medium,
Susceptibility and conductivity, Maxwells equations,
Boundary conditions, EM wave equation, Plane
wave solutions, Polarization of the EM waves,
Poynting vector and intensity of the EM wave,
Reflection and refraction of EM waves at a dielectric
interface, Wave packet, Phase and Group velocities
Differential Calculus
Gradient:
T(x,y,z) : Function of 3 variables. Can be temperature at a point
(x,y,z) in a room.
How does T changes when we change 3 variables by infinitesimal
amounts dx, dy, dz?


A theorem on partial derivatives
Can be written as



is the gradient of T. It is a vector quantity.

T T T
dT dx dy dz
x y z
| | c c c
| | | |
= + +
| | |
c c c
\ . \ .
\ .
( ) ( )
. T dl = V
( )
.
T T T
dT x y z dxx dyy dzz
x y z
| | c c c
= + + + +
|
c c c
\ .
T V
Divergence
( )
.
x y z
v x y z v x v y v z
x y z
| | c c c
V = + + + +
|
c c c
\ .
y
x z
v
v v
x y z
c
c c
= + +
c c c
A scalar quantity
Tells how much the function v spreads out from the point in question.
a) large (+ve) divergence b) large (-ve) divergence c) Zero divergence d) large (+ve) divergence
A magnetic field has the property

An electrostatic field has the property
0 B
E c
V =
V =
Curl

x y z
x y z
v
x y z
v v v
| |
|
c c c
|
V =
|
c c c
|
|
\ .
( ) ( ) ( )
y y
x x z z
v v
v v v v
x y z
y z z x x y
c c
c c c c
= + +
c c c c c c
A vector quantity
Measure of how much the vector curls around the point in
question or how much is the rotational effect.

v
A magnetic field has the property
An electrostatic field has the property
o
B J V =
0 E V =
Integral calculus

Line Integral

v

l d

: Vector function

: Infinitesimal displacement vector


Integral is to be carried out along a path P from point a to b.

At each point on the path we take the dot product of with
the displacement to the next point on the path.

For closed loop path:
F

Example: Work done by a force

b
aP
v dl
}
v dl
}
W F dl =
}
v
dl
Integral calculus

Surface Integral

v

: Vector function

: Infinitesimal path of area with
direction perpendicular to the
surface

For closed surface:
Outward is positive for closed surface.
Arbitrary for open surface.
v da
}
da
v da
}
Let = flow of liquid (mass per unit area per unit time). Then

= total mass per unit time passing through the
surface
= flux
v

v da
}
Integral calculus

Volume Integral

T : Scalar function

: Infinitesimal volume element
}
t Td
dt
In Cartesian coordinates :
If T=T(x,y,z) = density of substance
Then
dxdydz d = t
}
t d z y x T ) , , ( = Total mass
Divergence or Gausss Theorem

If = Flow of incompressible fluid

= Total amount of fluid passing out through
the surface per unit time
The divergence measures the spreading out of the vectors from
a point.
If there are many faucets within a region filled with incompressible
fluid then an equal amount of liquid will be forced out through
the boundaries of the region. In essence, divergence theorem
states

( )
s
v d v da t V =
} }
v
s
v da
}
}
}
(faucets within the volume) = (flow out through the surface)
Stokes theorem
( )
s p
v da v dl V =
} }
Flux of curl through the
surface = Total amount of
rotation
Line integral of vector
around the boundary
Electric Field in Matter
Large classes of matter i) conductor
ii) Insulator
Conductor
Dielectric
-
Dielectrics: All charges are attached to specific atom
or molecules. Atom as a whole is electrically neutral.
Conductor: Contains an
unlimited supply of charges
that are free to move about
through the material
Eext
Eext
When an atom is
placed in an electric
field the positive and
negative charges are
pulled in opposite
directions.

The negative and
positive charges
attract each other.
Two opposing forces, a balance is reached. Atom gets polarized.
The atom has a tiny dipole moment, , in the direction of
p E
p E o =
o
is the atomic polarizability.
E=0
Molecules in electric field
Molecules are more complicated because they are typically asymmetric.

Non-polar molecules (CO2)
+
O O
C
O - O
C
Eext
0 0 = = E when p

= Polarizability when the field is along the axis.

= Polarizability when the field is to the axis.



For general case :
11
o

o

o o

<
11 11
E E p

o o + =

Polar molecules (like water)
What happens when polar molecules are placed in
an electric field?
Uniform field:

Force on positive end,
Force on negative end,

Two forces exactly cancels. However, there will be a
torque:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ( ))
2 2
d d
N r F r F qE qE
+ +
= + = +
E p E d q E q
d

= = = )
2
( 2
0 0 p when E = =
E q F

=
+
E q F

=

E
The dipole in a uniform field experiences a torque
N
F
+

d
+q
-q
r

r
+


Non-uniform field

does not exactly balance

There is a net force on the dipole in addition to the torque.
+
F

A
= difference between the fields at the plus end and minus end.

( )
x x
E d E A = V
dx
x
E
E
x
x
c
c
= A
( ) ( ) F F F q E E q E
+ +
= + = = A
d

E
If the dipole is very small (i.e. vector
is small) then small change in x
component of is
Gradient:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
. dT T dl dl T = V = V
dl is very small.
E p
E d q F
E d E

) (
) (
) (
V =
V =
V = A
More compactly
( )
x x
E d E A = V
( )
y y
E d E A = V
( )
z z
E d E A = V

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
x y z
x y z
E x E y E z E
d E x d E y d E z
d E
A = A + A + A
= V + V + V
= V
Polarization
What happens to a piece of dielectric material when it is
placed in an electric field?
Neutral atoms: Electric field Induces tiny dipole moment,
pointing in the same direction as the field (stretching).
Polar molecules: Molecule experiences a torque, tending to
line it up along the field direction (rotating).
Results: In the case of a material lot of little dipoles point
along the direction of the field the material
becomes polarized.
A convenient measure of this effect is
= dipole moment per unit volume, called polarization.
Now there are two fields:
1. Original field responsible for
2. New field due to


P
P
P
Bound Charges
Consider a long string of dipoles
Along the line head of one effectively cancels the tail of its neighbour .
Only two charges at the ends are left.
The net charges at the ends are called bound charge.
Results due to polarization and hence

Consider a tube of dielectric parallel to uniform polarization .
E

P
Dipole moment of tiny chunk
In terms of charge, dipole moment =
The bound charge that piles at the right end of the tube,

The surface charge density,
For an oblique cut, charge is still the same, but
Therefore,
( ) P Ad =
qd
PA q =
P
A
q
b
= = o
u cos
end
A A =

b
P n o =
Nonuniform Polarization

Bound Volume Charges
If the polarization is non-uniform, we get accumulations of bound
charge within the material as well as on the surface.

Diverging and hence results in a pile up of negative charge.

The net bound charge in a given volume
is equal and opposite to the amount that
has been pushed out through the surface
due to non-uniform polarization.




(Using and divergence or Gauss Theorem)

= Volume charge density

( )
b
V
S V
d P da P d t t = = V
} } }
E

P
b

b
P = V
Therefore,

b
P n o =
Uniformly Polarized Sphere

Two spheres of charge: a positive sphere and a negative sphere.

Without polarization the two are superimposed and cancel
completely.

But when the material is uniformly polarized, all the plus
charges move slightly upward and all the minus charges move
slightly downward.

The two spheres no longer overlap
Perfectly.
At the top there is a cap of leftover
positive charge and at the bottom a
cap of negative charge.

This leftover charge is precisely the bound surface charge .
b
o
Conversion of Gausss law from integral
equation to differential one
For closed surface:

0
1
enc
S
E da Q
c
=
}
= total charge enclosed
within the surface.

= permitivity of free space
enc
Q
0
c
Applying divergence theorem:
We can also write:
enc
V
Q d t =
}
= Volume charge
density

0
( ) ( )
V V
E d d

t t
c
V =
} }
Hence
This gives
0
1
E
c
V = Gausss law in differential form
( )
S V
E da E dt = V
} }
The Electric Displacement
Gausss Law in the Presence of Dielectric
The effect of polarization is to produce accumulation of bound charge,

within the dielectric and on the surface.
Now we take the field caused by both bound charge and free charge.

Gausss law in terms of total (volume) charge is:





where is now the total field inside the
dielectric, not just that portion generated
by polarization.

Let (electric displacement)

Gausss law reads


b
P = V

b
P n o =
0 b f f
E P c V = = + = V +
0
D E P c = +
f
D V =
E
( )
0 f
E P c V + =
Bound charges are those
that accumulate through the
displacements that occur on
a molecular scale in
polarization process. The
conduction electrons in a
conductor and the electrons
injected into a dielectric with
a high energy electron beam
are examples of free
charges.
The electric field produced by bound charges dilute the effect of external field
for points within the dielectric. Thus the field experienced by the molecules of
the dielectric is less than the external applied field.
Linear Dielectric
Susceptibility and Permittivity
For many substances, the polarization is proportional to the field,
provided is not too strong.


: electric susceptibility of the medium (dimensionless)

Materials that obey above equation are called linear dielectrics.

The total field may be due (i) in part to free charges and (ii) in
part to the polarization itself.





e
_
0 e
P E c _ =
E
E
0 0 0 0
(1 )
e e
D E P E E E E c c c _ c _ c = + = + = + =
0
(1 )
e
c c _ = +
e r
_
c
c
c + = = 1
0
Permittivity of the
material
Relative permittivity or
dielectric constant
In vacuum, there is
no matter to polarize
o
c c =
, 0 =
e
_
Magnetic Fields in Matter
All magnetic phenomena are due to electric charge in motion.

In a magnetic material, at atomic scale, tiny currents exist.
Electrons orbiting around nuclei and electrons spinning
about their axes.


For macroscopic level: these current loops are very small and hence
these can be treated as magnetic dipoles.
Random orientation of atoms cancels these dipoles.
But, when magnetic field is applied, a net alignment of these magnetic
dipoles occurs medium becomes magnetically polarized, or magnetized.
Three types of materials:

1) Paramagnets: magnetization is parallel to
2) Diamagnetic: magnetization is opposite to
3) Ferromagnetic: retain their magnetization even after the external field
has been removed



B

Torques and Forces on Magnetic Dipoles

Electric dipole experiences a torque in an electric field.
Magnetic dipole experiences a torque in a magnetic field.
Torque on a rectangular current loop in uniform magnetic field
Any current loop could be built up from
infinitesimal rectangles, with all the
internal side cancelling.

Centre of the loop at the origin.
Loop is tilted by an angle from
the z-axis towards the y-axis.

is in the z-direction.

a = slanted side
b = side normal to B
Net force on the loop is zero.
Torque on the loop (tending to
rotate it about x-axis is

sin N aF x =
The force on each segment is of
the magnitude

b = length of the horizontal sides of the loop (along x-axis)
a = length of the slanted sides of the loop


Or


where = magnetic dipole moment of the loop.

F IbB =

sin sin N IabB x mB x u u = =
B m N

=
m Iab =
( )
mag
F I dl B =
}

Each tiny loop has area a and thickness t


Surface current
Let is the outward-drawn unit vector then
bound surface current
m Mat = Ia m=
b
I
K M
t
= =
n M K
b
=

n
M

Magnetization
In the presence of magnetic field, matter becomes magnetized.

= magnetic dipole moment per unit volume called magnetization.
Plays a role analogues to the polarization in electrostatics. P
Tiny current loops are dipoles.
Equivalent to a simple ribbon of current
I flowing around the boundary
Slab of uniformly magnetized material
Mat Ia =
It is a peculiar kind of current because no single
charge makes the whole trip, each charge moves
only in a tiny little loop within a single atom.
The net effect is a macroscopic current flowing
over the surface of the magnetized object. This is
called bound current.

Every charge is attached to a particular atom, but
it is a perfectly genuine current and it produces a
magnetic field in the same way any other current
does.
Non Uniform magnetization
The internal current no longer cancel.
Two adjacent chunks of magnetized materials.
Thick arrows - greater magnetization at that point.

When they join there is a net current in the x-direction.
Non-uniform magnetization in z-direction:




Volume current density is
[ ( ) ( )]
z
x z z
M
I M y dy M y dz dydz
y
c
= + =
c
y
M
J
z
x b
c
c
= ) (
A non-uniform magnetization in y-direction would contribute an amount

(-ve because when they join excess current flows in opposite direction)


so that

The right side is just the x-component of a curl.


Extending to 3-dimensions
z
M
y
c
c

( )
y
z
b x
M
M
J
y z
c
c
=
c c
M J
b

V =
I Mt =
What we have learnt:
The effect of magnetization is to establish bound currents

within the material
and
on the surface
The field due to magnetization of the medium is just the
field produced by these bound currents.

Field = field due to bound currents+ field due to everything
else( or free current)

Total current:

= due to magnetization results from the conspiracy
of many aligned atomic dipoles.
= due to supply of current or transport of charge.
M J
b

V =
n M k
b
=

b
J

f
J

b f
J J J = +
Conversion of Amperes law from integral
equation to differential one
0 enc
B dl I =
}
enc
I
= Total current enclosed
by the integration path
enc
I J da =
}
Flow of charge is represented
by a volume current density (J ).
Integral is taken over the surface bounded by the loop.
Applying Stokes theorem:
( )
0
B da J da V =
} }
0
B J V =
Amperes law in differential form
( )
s p
v da v dl V =
} }
1
( )
f b f
o
B J J J J M

V = = + = +V
1
( )
f
o
B M J

V =
Amperes Law:
0
1
H B M

=
Let
f
H J V =
is auxiliary field or magnetic intensity.
is analogous to in electrostatics.
D

Or,
( ) (1 )
o o m
B H M H _ = + = +
B H =
(1 )
o m
_ = +
m
M H _ =
0 ,
m o
_ = =
For linear media :
Thus
where,
In vacuum, there is no matter to magnetize:
= magnetic susceptibility
(dimensionless)
m
_

= permeability of
the material
The Auxiliary Field
H

Conversion of Faradays law from integral equation

to differential form
Changing magnetic field induces an electric field.
d
E dl
dt
|
c = =
}
Emf
Flux B da | =
}
B
E dl da
t
c
=
c
} }
Faradays law
in integral form
Using Stokes theorem :
t
B
E
c
c
= V


( )
s p
v da v dl V =
} }
Boundary Conditions
Electrostatics
Electric field always undergoes a discontinuity when we
cross a surface charge .
What is the amount of that changes at such boundary?


o
E
Thin Gaussian pill box A = area of the pill box lid
Gausss law states:
enc
o o
Q A
E da
o
c c
= =
}
If thickness of the pill box tends to zero, the sides of pill box contribute
nothing to the flux. Thus we are left with
above below
o
A
E A E A
o
c

=
The normal component of is discontinuous by an amount at any
boundary. It is continuous if .
OR
o
o
c
E
above below
o
E E
o
c

=
0 o =
For tangential component of we apply:
E
0 E dl =
}
to the thin rectangular loop.
The ends give nothing as
thickness tends to zero.
The sides give
0
above below
E l E l =
E is the component of parallel to the surface. E
The boundary conditions on can be combined into the
following single formula :
E

above below
o
E E n
o
c
=
is a unit vector perpendicular to the surface pointing from below to above.

n
above below
E E =
Using Stokes theorem and curl of E equal
to zero, the integral around a closed path
for E is zero.
Magnetostatics
Magnetic field is discontinuous at a surface current.
0 0 B B da V = =
}
Applying to a wafer-thin pill box,
we get
0
above below
B A B A

=
OR
For tangential components, consider an amperian loop running
perpendicular to the current
( )
above below
B dl B B l =
}
o enc o
I Kl = =
above below
B B

=
above below o
B B K =
The component of parallel to the
surface but perpendicular to the current
is discontinuous in the amount
B
o
K
( )

above below o
B B K n =
( )
s
v d v da t V =
} }
Problems
1. A sphere of radius R carries a polarization



where k is a constant and is the vector from the center.

(a) Calculate the bound charges and .

(b) Find the field inside and outside the sphere.

( ) P r kr =
r
b
o
b

2. A thick spherical shell (inner radius a, outer radius b) is

made of dielectric material with a frozen-in
polarization


where k is a constant and r is the distance from the center.
(There is no free charge in the problem.) Find the
electric field in all three regions by two different
methods:

(a) Locate all the bound charge,
and use Gausss law to calculate
the field it produces.
(b) Find D and then get E .

( )
k
P r r
r
=
3. The space between the plates of a parallel-plate
capacitor is filled with two slabs of linear dielectric material.
Each slab has thickness a, so the total distance between
the plates is 2a. Slab 1 has a dielectric constant of 2, and
slab 2 has a dielectric constant of 1.5. The free charge
density on the top plate is + and on the bottom plate - .

(a) Find the electric displacement D in each slab.
(b) Find the polarization P in each slab.
(c) Find the location and amount of all bound charge.
o o
4. An infinitely long circular cylinder carries a uniform
magnetization M parallel to its axis. Find the magnetic field
(due to M) inside and outside the cylinder.



5. A long circular cylinder of radius R
carries a magnetization



where k is a constant, s is the
distance from the axis, and is the
usual azimuthal unit vector. Find the
magnetic field due to M, for points
inside and out side the cylinder.


2

M ks | =

|
6. An infinitely long cylinder, of radius R, carries a frozen-
in magnetization, parallel to the axis,

M ksz =
where k is a constant, s is the distance from the axis; there
is no free current anywhere. Find the magnetic field inside
and outside the cylinder by two different methods:

(a) Locate bound currents, and calculate the field they
produce.
(b) Use Amperes law to find H, and then get B.


7. A coaxial cable consists of two very long cylindrical
tubes, separated by linear insulating material of magnetic
susceptibility . A current I flows down the linear
conductor and returns along the outer one; in each case,
the current distributes itself uniformly over the surface.

(a) Find the magnetic field in the region between the tubes.
(b) Calculate the bound currents, and confirm that
(together, of course, with free currents) they generate the
correct field.
m
_
8. An iron rod of length L and square cross section (side
a) is given a uniform longitudinal magnetization M, and
then bent around a circle with a narrow gap (w). Find the
magnetic field at the centre of the gap assuming
w<<a<<L.

The flow of charge distributed throughout a three dimensional
region is described by volume current density .

Consider a tube of infinitesimal cross
section , running parallel to the flow.

= current in the tube

Thus
J
da

dI
dI
J
da

=
J is the current per unit area perpendicular to flow.
We can also write
S S
I Jda J da

= =
} }
Total charge per unit time leaving a volume V is
( )
S V
J da J dt = V
} }
( )
V V V
d
J d d d
dt t

t t t
c
| |
V = =
|
c
\ .
} } }
J
t
c
V =
c
Since charge is conserved, whatever flows
out through the surface must come at the
expense of that remaining inside. Therefore
Continuity equation
Thus
Continuity Equation

Electrodynamics before Maxwell

i) (Gausss law)

ii) (no name)

iii) (Faradays law)

iv) (Amperes law)

c
0
1
= V E

0 = V B

B
E
t
c
V =
c
0
B J V =
There is a inconsistency in these formulas.
The divergence of curl is always zero.
( ) ( ) ( )
y y
x x z z
v v
v v v v
x y z
y z z x x y
c c
c c c c
= + +
c c c c c c
v V
( ) 0 v V V =
Let us apply this to Faradays law.
( )
( )
B
E B
t t
| |
c c
V V = V = V
|
c c
\ .
Its both sides are zero and hence is satisfied.

Let us apply this to Amperes law.
( )
0
( ) B J V V = V
Its left side is zero but the right side is, in general, not zero
hence is not satisfied. For steady currents, the divergence of
J is zero. The problem is on the right side.

Amperes law is not right.
How Maxwell Fixed Amperes Law
( )
0 0
E
J E
t t t

c c
| |
c c c
V = = V = V
|
c c c
\ .
If we combine with J in Amperes law, it would be just right

to kill off the extra divergence. Thus
0
E
t
c
| |
c
|
c
\ .
0 o o
E
B J
t
c
c
V = +
c
Such modification changes nothing, as far as magnetostatics is concerned:

when E is constant, we still have .


However, it plays a crucial role in the propagation of electromagnetic waves.


Apart from curing the defect in Amperes law, Maxwells term implies:


A changing electric field induces a magnetic field.
0
B J V =
Maxwells Equations

i) (Gausss law)

ii) (no name)

iii) (Faradays law)

iv) (Amperes law)

c
0
1
= V E

0 = V B

B
E
t
c
V =
c
Maxwells
correction to
Amperes law
0 o o
E
B J
t
c
c
V = +
c
A changing electric field induces a magnetic field.
Electromagnetic Waves
Wave
Disturbance of a continuous medium that propagate with a fixed shape
at constant velocity.
In the presence of absorption, wave diminishes in size as it moves.
If the medium is dispersive different frequencies travel at the different
speeds.
Standing waves do not propagate at all.
Sinusoidal Waves: The most familiar waveform.

] ) ( cos[ ) , ( o + = vt z k A t z f
A = Maximum amplitude or displacement of the wave
= Phase constant (02)
Central maximum when
phase is zero.
0 ) ( = + o vt z k
2
k
t

= = wave number
As time passes, the entire wave train proceeds to the right, at
speed v. At any fixed point z, the string vibrates up and down,
undergoing one full cycle in a period

2
T
kv
t
=
Frequency (no. of oscillations/time) is
More convenient unit is angular frequency .
Sinusoidal wave in terms of is
) cos( ) , ( o e + = t kz A t z f
If it is travelling to left then

) cos( ) , ( o e + = t kz A t z f
1
2
kv v
T
v
t
= = =
e
2 kv e tv = =
e
Complex Notations
Exponentials are much easier to manipulate than sines
and cosines.
Eulers formula:
Sinusoidal wave can be written as


represents the real part of the complex number

cos sin
i
e i
u
u u = +
( )
( )
, Re
i kz t
f z t Ae
e o +
(
=

( )
Re
Let us introduce a complex wave function:




=
complex amplitude absorbing phase constant
Actual wave function is:
o e i t kz i
e e A t z
f
) (
~
) , (

=
) (
~
t kz i
e A
e
o i
Ae A =
~
( , ) Re[ ( , )] f z t f z t =
Interface : Boundary conditions
(Reflection and Transmission)
Incident wave:

(z < 0)
Reflected wave:

(z < 0)
Transmitted wave:
(z > 0)
2
~
( )
( , )
i k z t
T
T
z t A e
f
e
=
) (
~
1
~
) , (
t z k i
I
I
e A t z
f
e
=
) (
~
1
~
) , (
t z k i
R
R
e A t z
f
e
=
All parts of the system are oscillating at the same frequency .
The wave velocities are different in two regions. The
wavelength and wave numbers are also different.
) (
) ( ) (
2
1 1
~
~ ~
) , (
~
t z k i
T
t z k i
R
t z k i
I
e A
e A e A t z f
e
e e

=
+ =
The net disturbance is
(z < 0)
(z > 0)
At the boundary (z = 0), f(z,t) should be continuous.
Therefore
~ ~
0 0
(0 , ) (0 , )
z z
f t f t
f f
z z
+
+
= =
=
c c
=
c c
Applying above conditions:


1
1 2
1 2
1 2
2
T I
R I
k
A A
k k
k k
A A
k k
=
+

=
+
2
2 1
2 1
2 1
2
T I
R I
v
A A
v v
v v
A A
v v
=
+

=
+
In terms of velocities:
kv const =
The real amplitudes and phases are related by
If the second medium is heavier than the first the
reflected wave is out of phase by 180 deg .
In other words, since
( )
1 2
v v >
( )
1 2
v v >
2 1
2 1
R I
i i
R I
v v
A e A e
v v
o o

=
+
2
2 1
2
T I
i i
T I
v
A e A e
v v
o o
=
+
If the second medium is lighter than the first all three
waves have the same phase angle and the
corresponding amplitudes are
( )
R T I
o o o = =
2 1
2 1
R I
v v
A A
v v

=
+
2
2 1
2
T I
v
A A
v v
=
+
( )
R T I
o t o o + = =
( ) ( )
1 1
cos cos
I I
k z t k z t e o t e o + = +
the reflected wave is upside down. The amplitudes are
1 2
2 1
R I
v v
A A
v v

=
+
2
2 1
2
T I
v
A A
v v
=
+
Polarization

Vertical polarization
x e A t z f
t z k i
I v

~
) , (
~
) (
1
e
=
y e A t z f
t z k i
h

~
) , (
~
) (
1
e
=
Horizontal polarization
n e A t z f
t z k i
I

~
) , (
~
) (
1
e
=
Plane of vibration
along
n
Since the waves are transverse, is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation and hence
n
0 . = z n
y x n sin cos u u + =
y e A x e A t z f
t z k i t z k i
sin
~
cos
~
) , (
~
) ( ) ( e e
u u

+ =
Superposition of two waves- one horizontally polarized and the other
vertically:
Electromagnetic waves in vacuum (Q = 0, J = 0)
Maxwells equations are
Equations 3 and 4 are coupled, first
order partial differential equations for
. They can be decoupled by
applying curl to equations 3 and 4.


B and E

0
0
o o
E
B
B
E
t
E
B
t
c
V =
V =
c
V =
c
c
V =
c
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
( ) ( )
( ) 0
( )
o o
o o
E E E
B
E
t
B E
E
t t
E
E
t
c
c
V V = V V V
c
V = V
c
c V c
= = V
c c
c
V =
c
2
2
2
o o
B
B
t
c
c
V =
c
Similarly
In vacuum, each Cartesian component of E and B satisfies the three
dimensional wave equation:
2
2
2 2
1 f
f
v t
c
V =
c
Maxwells equations imply that empty space supports
the propagation of EM waves travelling at a speed :
8
0 0
1
3 10 / v x m s
c
= =
Monochromatic Plane Wave
Fixed frequency
Wave is travelling in z-direction and has no x and y
dependence
Fields are uniform over every plane perpendicular to
the direction of propagation.
Consider following forms of the fields:
( )
0
( )
0
( , )
( , )
i kz t
i kz t
z t e
B z t B e
e
e

E = E
=
where and are the
complex amplitudes with no x
and y dependence.

and should, apart from
wave equation, follow
Maxwells equations
0
E
0
B
B E
( )
0 0 0
( )
0
0
0 z
[( ) ( ) ( ) ]

0
E= 0 + 0+ ik ( ) 0
( ) 0
Applying B=0
gives (B ) 0
i kz t
x y z
x y z
y
x z
i kz t
z
z
E E x E y E z e
E E x E y E z
E
E E
E
x x x
E e
E
e
e

= + +
= + +
c
c c
V = + + =
c c c
V =
=
V
=
Electromagnetic waves are transverse.
The electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular
to the direction of propagation.

y
x Z
y
x Z
y
x z
B
E
t
E
B E
y z t
B
E E
z x t
E
E B
x y t
c
V =
c
c
c c
=
c c c
c
c c
=
c c c
c
c c
=
c c c
( )
0
( , )
i kz t
B z t B e
e
=
0 0
0 0 0 0
0
0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0
0
0 0
0 0 ( ) ( ) 0
( ) 0 ( ) ( ) ( )( )
0 0 ( ) 0
( ) 0 ( ) 0
0 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )
0 0 ( ) ( ) 0
0 0 ( ) 0
( ) ( )( )
(
x x
x y y x
z
y x
y x x y
y y
z
y x
i B B
k
ik E i B B E
i B
Let
E const and E
then
k
ik E i B B E
i B B
i B
k
B E
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
= =
= =
= =
= = =
= =
= =
= =
=
0 0
) ( )( )
x y
k
B E
e
=
Let us assume
( )
. 0
o
x
E cons = =
( )
0
o
y
E =
Magnetic vector is
perpendicular to
electric vector.
Maxwells equation:
( )
0 0 0
[( ) ( ) ( ) ]
i kz t
x y z
B B x B y B z e
e
= + +
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0
0 0 0
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
=( ) ( )
1
( ) ( )
x y z
x y z
x y
y x
x y
B B x B y B z
E E x E y E z
z E E y E x
k k k
z E E x E y
B x B y
k
B z E k E
e e e
e e
= + +
= + +
=
= +
+
= =
and are in phase and mutually perpendicular. Their amplitudes (real)
are related by
E
B
1
o o o
k
B E E
c e
= =
2
2
k
t

e tv
=
=
Generalization:

There is nothing special about z-direction. It can travel in an arbitrary
direction. We consider a propagation (or wave) vector, pointing in
the direction of propagation, whose amplitude is the wave number k.
is the appropriate generalization of kz.

k

,
is the polarization vector.

Since is transverse

E

z z y y x x r + + =

k r
( )

( , )
i k r t
o
E r t E e n
e
=
( )
1

( , ) ( ) ( )
i k r t
o
E
B r t e k n k E
c c
e
= =

0 n k =
0
0

( , ) cos( . )
1

( , ) cos( . )( )
E r t E k r t n
B r t E k r t k n
c
e o
e o
= +
= +
(Real)
0 0
2 2 2
0 0 0
2 2
0 0
1
1
( )
2
cos ( )
B E E
c
u E E E
E kz t
c
c c c
c e o
= =
= + =
= +
)
1
(
2
1
2
0
2
0
B E u

c + =
0
1
( ) S E B

=
2
2 2 2
0 0 0
2
0 0 0
2 2
0 0
1
cos ( )
E c c
S E E c E
c c
S c E kz t z
c c

c e o
= = = =
= +
Energy in Electromagnetic Waves
Energy per unit volume stored in e.m. field is



In the case of monochromatic plane wave


Electric and magnetic contributions are
equal.
As the wave travels, it carries this
energy along with it.

Energy per unit area per unit time (energy flux density) transported
by the fields is given by the Poynting vector:
For monochromatic plane wave propagating
in z-direction:


2
0 0
1
2
I s c E c =< >=
Average power per unit
area transported:
2
0
1 1
cos ( 2 / )
2
T
kz t T dt
T
t o + =
}
Electromagnetic Waves in Matter
(Q=0 , J=0 region only)
0
0
E
B
B
E
t
E
B
t
c
V =
V =
c
V =
c
c
V =
c
Maxwells equations are
B H
E D

c
1
=
=
1 c
v
n
c
= =
Difference with vacuum is only in
the replacement of by .
0 0
c
c
0 0
n
c
c
=
n is the refractive index of the material.
1
( )
1
S E B
B E
v

=
=
2
0
1
2
I vE c =
Intensity:
Poynting
vector:
1 1 2 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
(1)
(2)
(3)
1 1
(4)




E E
B B
E E
B B
c c



=
=
=
=
Boundary Conditions
Medium 2 Medium 1
1
c
2
c
2

above below
o
E E
o
c

=
above below o
B B K =
Reflection and transmission at normal incidence
A plane wave of frequency
, traveling in z-direction
and polarized in x-direction
is incident on the interface.
e
1
1
1
1
2
2
( )
0
( )
0
1
( )
0
( )
0
1
( )
0
( )
0
2
( , )
( , )
( , )
( , )
( , )
( , )
i k z t
I I
i k z t
I
I
i k z t
R R
i k z t
R
R
i k z t
T T
i k z t
T
T
E z t E e x
E
B z t e y
v
E z t E e x
E
B z t e y
v
E z t E e x
E
B z t e y
v
e
e
e
e
e
e

=
=
=
=
=
=
Since the plane wave is incident
perpendicularly, the perpendicular
components of E and B will be zero
and only parallel components will be
there and hence the boundary
conditions will be
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 1
E E
B B

=
=
T R I
E E E
0 0 0
~ ~ ~
= +
At z = 0:
and
0 0 0
1 1 1 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
( ) ( )
I R T
E E E
v v v
=
1 1
0 0 0 0
2 2

I R T T
v
E E E E
v

= =
1 1 1 2
2 2 2 1
v n
v n

|

= =
0 0
2
( )
1
T I
E E
|
=
+
0 0
1
( )
1
R I
E E
|
|

=
+
OR where
Solving
If permitivities are close to their values in vacuum, ( )
2
1
n
n
| =
0I
2 1
1
0T
0I
2 1
2 1
0R
E
~
)
2
( E
~

E
~
) ( E
~
n n
n
n n
n n
+
=
+

=
2 2
1 2
1 2
2
2 2
1 1
2
2 1 1 1 2
2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
( ) ( )
( )
4 4
( ) ( )
0R
0I
0T
0I
=
R
I
T
I
E I n n
R
I E n n
E I v
T
I v E
n n n n
n n n n n
c
c
c
c

= = =
+
= =
=
+ +
and
2
0
1
2
I vE c =
( )
2
2 1 2 1
n n c c =
( )
0
1
( )
0
1
( )
0
2
( , )
1

( , ) ( )
( , )
1

( , ) ( )
( , )
1

( , ) ( )
I
R
T
i k r t
I I
I I I
i k r t
R R
R R R
i k r t
T T
T T T
E r t E e
B r t k E
v
E r t E e
B r t k E
v
E r t E e
B r t k E
v
e
e
e



=
=
=
=
=
=
Reflection and transmission at oblique incidence
2 1 1
v k v k v k
T R I
= = = e
T T R I
k
n
n
k
v
v
k k
2
1
1
2
= = =
All three waves have same
frequency
Z = 0
k
I
k
R
k
T
T
u
I
u
R
u
I R T
I R T
E E E
B B B
+ =
+ =
Using boundary conditions: At z = 0
We get
( ) ( ) ( )

I R T
i(k .r t) i(k r t) i(k .r t)
e e e
e e e
+ =
In the above equation x, y and t dependence is confined to
the exponents.
Since the boundary conditions must hold at all points on the
plane (i.e., independent of values of x and y on z=0) and for
all times, the exponents must be equal. Otherwise a slight
change in x, say, would destroy the equality.
I R T
k r k r k r = =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
I x I y R x R y T x T y
k x k y k x k y k x k y + = + = +
Therefore, when z = 0
The above equation can only hold if the components
are separately equal.

If x=0, then
( ) ( ) ( )
I y R y T y
k y k y k y = =
(y-z plane, x = 0)
and if y = 0, then
( ) ( ) ( )
I x R x T x
k x k x k x = =
(x-z plane, y = 0)
First law: The incident, reflected and transmitted
wave vectors lie in a plane that includes normal to
the surface (interface) and is called plane of
incidence.
( ) ( ) ( )
I x R x T x
k x k x k x = =
T T R R I I
k k k u u u sin sin sin = =
I R
I R
k k
u u
=
= Snells Law of Reflection
Second Law :
If y = 0 then
Since
Therefore
Third Law :
sin sin
I I T T
k k u u =
1
2
sin sin
T I T T
n
k k
n
u u =
OR
1 2
sin sin
I T
n n u u =
Snells Law of Refraction
These are the three fundamental laws of geometrical optics.
After taking care of exponential factors which cancel, the
boundary conditions are:
( )
1 0 0 2 0
0 0 0
0 0 , 0 ,
0 0 , 0 ,
1 2
( )
1 1
( ) ( )
I R z T z
I R z T
z
I R x y T x y
I R x y T x y
(E E ) (E )
B B B
(E E ) (E )
B B B
c c

+ =
+ =
+ =
+ =
Perpendicular



Parallel to interface
where in each case.

The last two equations represent pairs of equations, one
for the x-component and one for the y-component.
( )
0 0

1 B v k E =
1.

2.

3.

4.
Case : Polarization of the incident wave is parallel to the
plane of incidence ( lies in x-z plane)
The reflected and transmitted waves are also polarized in
this plane.
E
1 0 0 2 0
2 2 1
0 0 0 0
1 1 2
2
1 1 2 1 1
0 0 0
2
2 2 1 2 2
sin sin sin
sin
sin
.
I I R R T T
T
I R T T
I
T T T
( E E ) ( E )
n
E E E E
n
v v v
E E E
v v v
c u u c u
c u c
c u c

|

+ =
= =
= = =
Boundary condition 1 gives:
where
1 1
2 2
v
v

=
1
v
c
=
1 2
2 1
n v
n v
=
0 0 0 I R T
E E E | =
Equation (1)
1 0 0 2 0 I R z T z
(E E ) (E ) c c + =
Boundary condition 2 gives nothing ( 0 = 0 ) because magnetic
fields have no z-components.
Boundary condition 3 gives:
0 0 0
0 0 0 0
cos cos cos
cos
cos
I I R R T T
T
I R T T
I
E E E
E E E E
u u u
u
o
u
+ =
+ = =
cos
cos
T
I
u
o
u
=
0 0 0 I R T
E E E o + =
Equation (2)
Boundary condition 4 gives:
0 0 0
1 1 2 2
1 1
( )
I R T
E E E
v v
=
along y-direction
0 0 0 I R T
E E E | =
Or,
Same as Equation (1)
Solving Equations (1) and (2) gives
( )
0 0 0
0 0 , 0 ,
( )
I R z T
z
I R x y T x y
B B B
(E E ) (E )
+ =
+ =
0 0 , 0 ,
1 2
1 1
( ) ( )
I R x y T x y
B B B

+ =
0 0
( )
R I
E E
o |
o |

=
+
0 0
2
( )
T I
E E
o |
=
+
Fresnels equations for the case of polarization in the
plane of incidence.
Note:
1. The transmitted wave is always in phase with the
incident one.
2. The reflected wave is in phase if , and 180
deg out of phase if .
3. The amplitudes of the transmitted and reflected
waves depend on the angle of incidence because
is a function of :
o | >
o | <
o
I
u
2 2
1
2
2
1 ( ) sin
1 sin
cos
cos cos cos
I
T
T
I I I
n
n
u
u
u
o
u u u

= = =
Three cases:
1. Normal incidence ( ), , we get same equations
that we have got earlier.
2. Grazing angle of incidence ( ), diverges and the
wave is totally reflected.
3. There is an intermediate angle, , called Brewsters
angle, at which the reflected wave is completely lost. This
occurs when .
0
I
u =
1 o =
90
o
I
u =
o
B
u
o | =
2 2
1
2
1 ( ) sin
cos
B
B
n
n
u
|
u

=
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
1
sin
B
n
n
|
u
|

For the case and hence :

1 2
~
2 1
n n | ~
2
2
2
sin
1
B
|
u
|
~
+
This gives
2
1
tan
B
n
n
u ~
For:
1
2
1
1.5
n
n
=
=
2
1 1 0
1
cos
2
I I I
I v E c u =
2
1 1 0
1
cos
2
R R R
I v E c u =
2
2 2 0
1
cos
2
T T T
I v E c u =
Intensities:
Reflection and transmission coefficients for waves polarized
parallel to the plane of incidence are:
2
2
0
0
R R
I I
E I
R
I E
o |
o |
| |
| |
= = =
|
|
+
\ .
\ .
2
2
0 2 2
1 1 0
cos 2
cos
T T T
I I I
E I v
T
I v E
c u
o|
c u o |
| |
| |
= = =
|
|
+
\ .
\ .
Group and Phase Velocities
Consider the waves having same or comparable amplitudes
but different frequencies:
( )
( )
1 0 1 1
2 0 2 2
cos
cos
E E k z t
E E k z t
e
e
=
=
Superposition of these waves traveling together in a given
medium is
( ) ( )
1 2 0 1 1 2 2
cos cos
R
E E E E k z t k z t e e ( = + = +

( ) ( )
1 1
cos cos 2cos cos
2 2
o | o | o | + = +
Using
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0
2 cos cos
2 2 2 2
R
k k k k
E E z t z t
e e e e ( ( + +
| | | | | | | |
=
| | | | ( (
\ . \ . \ . \ .

Let
1 2
2
p
e e
e
+
=
1 2
2
g
e e
e

=
1 2
2
p
k k
k
+
=
1 2
2
g
k k
k

=
Then
( ) ( )
0
2 cos cos
R p p g g
E E k z t k z t e e =
Product of two cosine waves having frequencies
and and wave propagation constants and .
p
e
g
e
g
k
p
k
Its application is in the phenomenon
of dispersion. Due to dispersion, light
components of different wavelengths
travel with different speeds through a
refractive medium. The resultant of
waves E1 and E2 is shown.
The velocity of higher frequency
wave is called the phase velocity:
1 2
1 2
p
p
p
v
k k k k
e
e e e +
= = ~
+
The velocity of the envelope wave is
called the group velocity:
1 2
1 2
g
g
g
d
v
k k k dk
e
e e e
= = ~

Group velocity determines the speed with which energy

is transmitted.
Relation between phase and group velocities:
( )
p p
g p
d kv dv
d
v v k
dk dk dk
e
= = = +
In non-dispersive medium, velocity of a wave does not
depend on wavelength, therefore
0
p
dv
dk
= and hence
g p
v v =
In dispersive medium:
( )
p
c
v
n k
=
n = refractive index
2
p p
dv v
c dn dn
dk n dk n dk
= =
1 1
p
g p p p
kv
dn k dn dn
v v v v
n dk n dk n d

( (
| | | |
= = = +
| | ( (
\ . \ .

Problems
1. An electromagnetic wave is given by




where E0 is a constant. Prove that the Poynting vector is .

2. Show that the energy density corresponding to the field


is a constant everywhere.

3. Calculate and in a medium characterized by


4. In free space a plane wave with mA/m

is incident normally on a lossless medium in

region . Determine the reflected wave and the transmitted

wave .


( )
1 2
2
0
E z c
( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
0 0
cos sin E xE z t yE z t e c e e c e
( (
= +

| | | |
0 0
cos sin E xE z t yE z t | e | e = +
| H
( )
8
0 0
0, , 4 , 20sin 10 E t z y o c c | = = = =
( )
0 z s
8
10cos 10 H x t z |
(
=

( )
0 0
8 , 2 c c = =
0 z >
,
r r
H E
,
t t
H E