UNIT - II

HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN

Importance of Geometric Design

Deals with
Dimensions, Layout of the visible features of the highway such as Alignment, Sight Distances and Intersections.

Highway geometrics should be designed to provide optimum efficiency in traffic operations with maximum safety at reasonable cost.

Geometric design deals with

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Cross Section Elements Sight Distance considerations Horizontal alignment details Vertical Alignment details Intersection Elements

 For Cross Section Elements, considerations for width of the pavement, Formation and Land, Surface Characteristics & Cross Slope are included. The safe movement of vehicles is based on Sight Distance or Clear Visible Distance ahead of the driver at Hzl. Curves and Vert. Curves and at Intersections. Super Elevation is provided by raising the outer edge of the pavement to counteract the Centrifugal Force developed on the Horizontal Curves. Extra Pavement Width can also be provided for safe traversing of vehicles on Hzl. Curves.

 Highway Geometrics are greatly influenced by

Topography, Locality Traffic Characteristics and Requirements of Design Speed.

Factors which control the design speed requirements are

Speed Road user and Vehicular Characteristics Design Traffic Traffic Capacity Benefit-Cost considerations

Design Controls and Criteria

Important factors which control the Geometric Elements are:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Design Speed Topography Traffic Factors Design Hourly Volume and Capacity Environmental and other factors

1. Design Speed
Design speed is decided taking into account the overall requirements of the highway. In India speed standards are decided based on the class of the highway i.e., NHs, SHs, MDRs, ODRs, Village Roads. They further decided based on the terrain and topographical conditions. Similarly Urban Roads have a different set of design speeds. Every geometric element of the highway is designed based on design speed.

2. Topography
Topography or Terrain conditions affect the Geometric design of the highway significantly. Terrains are classified based on the general slope of the country as
a. b. c. d. Plain Terrain Rolling Terrain Mountainous Terrain Steep Terrain

The design standards specified for different classes of roads are different based on the terrain classification.

3. Traffic Factors
The factors affected with Traffic are
a. Vehicular Characteristics and b. Human characteristics of the road users The different vehicle classes such as cars, buses, trucks, motor cycles etc. have different speed and acceleration characteristics, apart from having different dimensions and weights. The Important human factors which affect traffic behaviors include physical, mental and physiological characteristics of the drivers and pedestrians.

4. Design Hourly Volume and Capacity

Traffic flow fluctuates with time, from low to the highest value at peak hours. It is uneconomical to design a highway facilities for the highest traffic flow considering the peak hour. Therefore a reasonable traffic volume is decided for the design which is called as the Design Hourly Volume.

5. Environmental and other factors

Environmental factors such as Aesthetics, Landscaping, Air pollution, Noise Pollution, and other local conditions should considered while designing the road geometrics. Arterial roads and Expressways are designed for higher speed standards and un-interrupted flow of traffic.

Highway Cross Section Elements

Pavement Surface Characteristics
Important pavement surface characteristics are
friction, Pavement unevenness, light reflecting characteristics and surface drainage of water.

Friction:
Friction between the vehicle tyre and pavement surface determines the operating speed and distance requirements in stopping and accelerating a vehicle. The coefficient of friction or the skid resistance offered by a pavement surface under driving conditions and surface conditions is important with reference to safety. When the breaks are applied, the wheels are locked partially or fully, and if the vehicle still moves forward, the longitudinal skidding takes place, which vary from 0 100 percent.

 Lateral skidding of a vehicle takes place on horizontal curves, which is very dangerous when compared to longitudinal skid.
Slip occurs when a wheel revolves more than the corresponding longitudinal movement along the road. Slipping usually occurs on surface which is either slippery or wet or when the surface is loose with mud.

 Factors affecting Friction or Skid resistance:

Type of pavement surface Texture of the pavement surface Surface condition of the pavement Type and condition of the vehicle tyre Speed of the vehicle Brake efficiency Load and tyre pressure Temperature of the tyre and the pavement Type of skid (if any)

 The type of aggregate used in the mix design of pavement surface course also affect the skid resistance of the pavement. The coefficient of friction is considerably less when the pavement is smooth or wet. It also decreases with the increase in temperature, tyre pressure and load.
The minimum anticipated value of coefficient of friction under worst conditions is generally taken for design purpose. The friction coefficient decreases with skid speed, which in turn depends on the speed of the vehicle and the braking efficiency.

 Longitudinal Frictional Coefficient of 0.35 to 0.40 and 0.15 for Horizontal curves, have been recommended by the Indian Roads Congress.
A Low value for coefficient of friction was suggested considering the possible worst surface condition such as mud on pavement surface at the horizontal curve with superelevation, during the rains, as it is essential to prevent the lateral skid.

 Pavement Unevenness:
Pavement unevenness affects vehicle operation cost, comfort and safety. Fuel consumption, wear and tear of tyres and other moving parts increases with increase in pavement unevenness Uneven surfaces also increases fatigue and accidents. Pavement surface unevenness is usually measured by an equipment called Bump Integrator.

 Bump Integrator measures in terms of Unevenness Index, which is the cumulative measure of vertical undulations of the pavement surface recorded per unit length of a road. Unevenness Index may be measured in cm. per km.

 Unevenness or undulations on pavement surface are caused by various factors like:

Inadequate or improper compaction of the fill, subgrade and pavement layers. Un-scientific construction practices including the use of boulder stones and bricks as soiling course over loose subgrade soil. Use of inferior pavement materials Improper surface and subsurface drainage Use of improper construction machinery Poor maintenance practices and Localized failures due to combination of causes.

 Light Reflecting Characteristics:

Night visibility depends upon the light reflection characteristics of the pavement surface. Light colored or white pavements surface give good visibility at night particularly during rains and they produce glare which strain the eyes during bright sunlight. Black top pavements provide poor visibility at nights, especially when the surface is wet.

Cross Slope or Camber

Cross slope or camber is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse direction to drain off the rain water from the road surface. Reasons for providing cross slope:
To prevent the entry of the surface water into the subgrade soil through pavement. To prevent the entry of water into the bituminous pavement layers, as it causes stripping of bitumen of continuous seepage of water, which results in deterioration of pavement layer. To remove the rain water from the surface as quickly as possible and to allow the pavement to dry soon after the rain.

 Usually camber is provided on the straight roads by raising the center of the carriageway with respect to the edges, forming a crown or highest point on the centerline. At horizontal curves, with super-elevation, the surface drainage is provided by raising the outer edge of the pavement with respect to the inner edge. The rate of camber or cross slope is usually designated by 1 in n which means the transverse slope is in the ratio 1 vertical to n horizontal. It is also denoted percentage, if the camber is x%, the slope is x in 100.

 Type of camber depends on:

Type of pavement surface and Amount of rainfall

A flat camber of 1.7 to 2.0% is sufficient on relatively impervious pavement layer like cement concrete or bituminous concrete. For pervious surface like Water Bound Macadam (WBM) or earth road which may allow water to penetrate into the subgrade soil, steeper cross slope is to be provided. Steeper cambers are also provided in high rainfall areas.

 Shape of Cross slope:

The camber is given a parabolic elliptic or straight line shape in the cross section. Parabolic or Elliptic shape is given so that the profile is flat at the middle and steeper towards the edges, which is preferred for fast moving vehicles. A very flat slope is provided as in cement concrete pavement. Sometimes a combination of parabolic at the central portion and straight at the edges is preferred.

S No.

Type of Road Surface

Range of camber in areas of rainfall range Heavy to Light

1.

Cement concrete and high type bituminous 1 in 50 (2.0 %) to 1 in 60 (1.7 %) surface

2.
3. 4.

Thin Bituminous Surface

Water Bound Macadam, Gravel Pavement Earth

1 in 40 (2.5 %) to 1 in 50 (2.0 %)
1 in 33 (3.0 %) to 1 in 40 (2.5 %) 1 in 25 (4.0 %) to 1 in 33 (3.0 %)

Width of Pavement or Carriage way

Depends on the width of the Traffic lane and the number of lanes. Lane width can be determined based on the width of the vehicle and the minimum side clearance, which may be provided for safety. Based on the above points, width of a pavement having single lane as 3.75 m. was decided.

The maximum width of a vehicle as per IRC Specifications, is 2.44 m.

 The number of lanes required in a highway depends on the predicted traffic volume and design traffic volume of each lane.
Traffic separators or medians are provided between two sets of traffic lanes inorder to divide the traffic moving in the opposite direction. In such conditions the lane width is decided based on the width of the pavement and the width of the traffic separators.

Class of Road 1. 2. 3. Single Lane Two Lane, Without raised Kerbs Two Lanes, With Raised Kerbs

Width of Carriageway 3.75 m. 7.0 m. 7.5 m.

4.
5.

Intermediate Carriageway (Except on important roads)

Multi-Lane Pavements

5.5 m.
3.5 m. per Lane

Function of Traffic Separators: To prevent head-on collision with vehicles moving in the opposite direction and on adjacent lanes. To Channelize the traffic into streams at intersections.

To segregate slow traffic and to protect pedestrians.

IRC recommends a minimum desirable width of 5.0 m. for medians for rural highways which may be reduced to 3.0 m. where land is restricted. On long bridges, the width may be reduced to 1.2 to 1.5 m.

Kerbs
Kerbs indicate the boundary between the pavement or shoulder, or footpath or kerb parking space. Kerbs are divided into 3 categories based on their function. 1. Low or Mountable type kerb 2. Semi-Barrier type kerb 3. Barrier type kerb

1. Low or Mountable type kerb:

Though the traffic is restricted to remain in the traffic lanes, the driver is allowed to enter into the shoulder area with a little difficulty. The height of this type of shoulder kerb is about 10 cm. above the pavement edge, with a slope to help the kerb easily. This system is provided at the medians and the channelization schemes and also for longitudinal drainage system.

2. Semi- Barrier Type kerb:

This kerb is provided at the periphery of the roadway, where the pedestrian traffic is high. The height of this type of kerb is 15 cm. above the pavement edge and with a batter of 1:1 on the top. This type of kerb prevents the encroachments of parking vehicles. But it is possible to drive over the kerb with some difficulty.

3. Barrier Type kerb:

Provided in built-up areas adjacent to footpaths with considerable pedestrian traffic. Height of the kerb is 20 cm. above the pavement edge, with a batter of 1.0 vertical to 0.25 horizontal.

Shoulder
Shoulders are provided along the road edge to serve as an emergency lane for vehicle compelled to be taken out of the carriageway. Shoulders also act as service lanes for vehicles that have broken down. They should have sufficient load bearing capacity to support a truck. The surface of the shoulder should be rougher than the traffic lanes such that the vehicles are not cannot use the shoulder as a regular traffic lane. It is desirable to have a clearance of 1.85 m. from the pavement edge. Minimum Shoulder width recommended by IRC is 2.5 m.

 Parking Lanes are provided on the urban roads to provide kerb parking.
Parallel parking is allowed as far as possible, as it is safer for moving vehicles. The clearance distance between the vehicles is more in the case of parallel parking than in angle parking. Parking lane should have a sufficient width of 3.0 m. for parallel parking.

Lay-byes are provided for the convenience of the drivers to stop clear off the carriageway. Lay-byes should be normally of 3.0 m. width with 30 m. length and 15 m. end tapers on both sides.

 Bus bays are provided by recessing the kerb to avoid conflict with the moving traffic. These should be located 75 m. away from the intersections.
Footpath or Sidewalks are provided in areas where vehicular as well as pedestrian traffic is heavy. They must be provided on the either sides of the road and a minimum width of 1.5 m. should be provided and can be increased based on the pedestrian traffic volume. Guard Rails are provided at the edge of the shoulder when the road is constructed on a fill so as to prevent the vehicles from running off the embankment.
These are provided when the height of fill exceeds 3.0 m. Guard stones painted with black and white stripes are placed along the outer edge of the horizontal curves so as to provide better visibility of the curves under the headlights of the vehicles.

 Width of Roadway or Formation

The width of formation is the sum of widths of pavements or carriageways including separators (if any); and the shoulders. The width of the roadway standardized by the IRC are as given.
Sl No. Road Classification Roadway Width, m. at: Plain and Rolling Terrain 1. National and State Highways a) Single Lane b) Two Lane 12.0 12.0 9.0 9.0 7.5 9.0 7.5 Mountainous and Steep Terrain 6.25 8.80 4.75 -4.75 -4.00

2.

Major District Roads a) Single Lane b) Two Lane

Other District Roads a) Single Lane b) Two Lane Village Roads

3.

4.

-- The minimum width of a single lane bridge is 4.25m.

 Right of Way is the area of land acquisition for the road along its alignment. The width of this acquired land is called as Land width and it depends on the importance of the road.
Land width is governed by the following factors: 1. Width of formation depending on the category of the highway and the width of roadway and the road margins. 2. Height of embankment or depth of cutting which is governed by the topography and the vertical alignment. 3. Side slopes of embankment or cutting which depend on the height of slope, soil type, and other considerations including aesthetics. 4. Drainage systems and their size, which depends on the rainfall, topography and run off. 5. Sight distance considerations on horizontal curves. 6. Reserve land for future widening to be planned in advance based on anticipated future developments and increase in traffic.