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Water salinity
Water class
Type of water
Non-saline
Slightly saline
<500
500-1500
Moderately saline
2 10
1500-7000
Highly saline
10-25
7000-15 000
25 45 >45
Freshwater is defined water with < 0.5 ppt dissolved salts Water salinity based on dissolved salts in (ppt) Freshwater < 0.5 Brackish water 0.5 35 Saline water 35 50 Brine > 50
Brackish water
result from mixing of seawater with fresh water, as in
Use of Brackish water desalination for drinking heated wastewater in the cooling process and brine disposal issues agriculture crop production, aquaculture, forage production, in thermoelectric-power industry to cool electricitygenerating equipment mining and other industrial purposes used extensively to irrigate gardens, parks and sports fields biomass production salt extraction
Water Desalination
counterproductive (it just makes you more thirsty!) Eventually, it can be dangerous, ultimately producing fatal seizures, heart arrhythmias and kidney failure
Desalination Technologies
1.
Thermal Desalination Processes Similar to the Earths natural water cycle Water is heated, evaporated and collected Produces clean water and brine
Example: Multi-Stage Flash Desalination Process uses multiple boiling chambers kept at different atmospheric pressures Saltwater enters the system and is boiled and evaporated in each chamber Process produces clean water and brine
Desalination Technologies
2. Membrane Desalination Processes Saltwater is forced through membrane sheets at high
pressures Membrane sheets are designed to catch salt ions Process produces clean water and brine
Example: Reverse Osmosis Saltwater is forced through a membrane at 600 to 1000 psi Multiple layers of membranes remove as many of the salt ions as possible
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates (3) Aruba (1) Australia (3 in use, 3 under construction, 1 planned) Cyprus (1) Israel (3 in use, 2 under construction) USA
Yuma (Arizona), opened 1992 El Paso (Texas) opened 2004 Tampa Bay (Florida) opened 2007 Monterey (California), in the planning stages
water
membrane
drinking water
saltwater
evaporator evaporator
clean water
vapor
condenser
water
brine
waste tank
brine
brine
Example: This plant uses two evaporators and condensers along with a membrane filter to clean saltwater (follow the arrows though the diagram)
populations Individual
Flora (forests) and fauna(animals) are one of the renewable resources of our country. In ancient times the country was famous for its dense and continuous forests like Dandakaranya, panchavati, Naimishyaranya etc. But with the advance of civilization through ages, most part these forests are gone now. Only 22 % of the total land of the country is covered with forests now. The flora of India is diverse. It is estimated that our country possesses 45,000 different species of plants. This is the widest range of diverse plants found in any country in the world. Nearly 5000 species are found exclusively in India. We can subdivide the forests of India into five classes. They are:
1.Tropical Rain Forests (Ever green forests) 2.Tropical Deciduous Forests 3.Thorn and Scrub Forests 4.Tidal Forests (Mangrove Forests) and
5. Mountain Forests
Forest Types :
Terrain, climate, soil and water conditions greatly influence the character and type of vegetation. The Himalayan region, possesses a variety of vegetation with a distinctive character of alpine type at higher altitudes and this region is clearly distinguished from the rest of the country. Climatic factors mainly temperature and rainfall determine which plant community can flourish in a specific habitat. Soils and drainage considerably introduce modifications, and thus we have edaphic types such as the tidal forests.
Tropical wet evergreen and semi evergreen forests are found in Southern Western Ghats, north-eastern India and Plains of West Bengal with altitude ranging from 500-1500 mts and rainfall exceeding 200cms. Height of trees is from 45-60mts.Vegetation is very dense. Variety of species is very large consists of rose wood, paan, aini, telsur.
Tropical moist deciduous forests are found in Western ghats and Chota`Nagpur plateau and Siwaliks of Himalayas. These forests have hilly terrains and plateau regions with rainfall between 100-200cms. These are tropical monsoon forests with tall trees which rise upto 25-60mts. Teak is a dominant species and other species are sandal wood, sal and shisham
Tropical dry deciduous forests occupy the large part of peninsular plateau, Ganga plain and area between the Thar, the Himalayas and the Western Ghats. They cover vast areas of plateau and plain areas with rainfall between 70-100cms. This type of forest is found with open formations and the important species are teak, bamboo, sal and khair.
Thorn forests are found in the plains of Punjab, seaside's of Western ghats and the drier parts of the Deccan plateau, this type forests are found in dry areas with rainfall less than 70cms. The vegetation consists of open stunted forests and xerophytic bushes and trees are just 6-7mts high. Acacias and euphoria's are common species everywhere.
Tidal forests are found in channels and islands of the Indian deltas like Ganga, Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna. They grow in the brackish as well as fresh waters areas and where mud and silt get accumulated. Mangrove is the most important tree in these forests which reaches 30mts high. Canes and palms are the species.
The Himalayan Temperate and Alpine forests are found in all the ranges of middle and upper Himalayas. The trees range from 100-250cms of rain fall.at an elevation 1600-3000mtsand the Alphine forests at a higher elevation of 3500mts and above. A great variety of species like broad leafed temperate evergreen trees like oaks, laurels, chestnuts, walnuts etc The Alphine vegetation consists of birch junifers, silver fir and shrubby rhododendrons.
pattern- Has impact on Environment leading to Drought, Flooding etc. Hydrology & Ecosystem Services Hydrology & Human Health
Municipal Supply
Water Treatment
Potable Water: The water for domestic purposes should be potable and palatable Characteristics of drinking water: High degree clarity Good taste and no smell Reasonably soft No pathogenic organisms
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
a) b)
Methods of disinfection: a) Boiling: Boiling for 15-20 minutes kills all types of bacteria; this method could be adopted for hospital and household purpose; the method is expensive for treating municipal water supply.
(b) CHLORINATION: Chlorine is widely used disinfectant for municipal water supply because: It is readily available both in liquid and gas form has powerful bactericidal property Does not introduce impurities and Economical
Mechanism of chlorination: Chlorine produces: i. Ionised hydrochloric acid (H+ and Cl-) at pH 6.5 ii. Un-ionised hypochlorous acid (HOCl) is a powerful bactericidal agent. At higher pH value of 8, HOCl undergoes ionization Hypochlorite ion (OCl-) and H+ ions are formed; hypochlorite ion is a weak bactericidal agent. Thus chlorine is a powerful disinfectant
Limitations: High residual chlorine produces unpleasant taste and odour; irritates mucous membrane Cl2 produces toic residues like CHCl3, CCL4 by reaction with organic pollutants in water; on a chronic usage these compounds may damage liver and kidney
Advantages: Chloramines are powerful bactericidal agents Imparts good taste to water Residual chlorine does not cause health hazards Sustained disinfection gives additional protection
COAGULATION
SEWAGE TREATMENT
Sewage is domestic waste water; it includes household water, toilet wastes, industrial wastes (effluents) and rainwater (storm-water).
Sludge is semi-solid material such as the type precipitated by sewage treatment.
Course 1 Unit 1
SEWAGE TREATMENT
TERTIARY SEWAGE TREATMENT Uses physical filtration and chemical precipitation to remove all the biologically degradable organic matter, nitrogen, and phosphorus from water. Tertiary treatment provides drinkable water, whereas secondary treatment provides water usable only for irrigation.
SEWAGE TREATMENT
The water after use emerging out of industry is termed as effluent while water which emerges out after domestic consumption is called sewage. The common constituents of sewage are carbonaceous organic matter, human faeces and detergents. The sewage treatment is classified under three categories. They are: primary, secondary and tertiary treatment PRIMARY TREATMENT: This method removes suspended solids, odour, colour, gases and oil. This treatment has the following stages : (i) Screening (ii)Sedimentation (iii)Degasification (iv)Oil separation (i) Screening: In this method two metal screens are used. One metal screen has wide openings (about 2-5 cm in diameter) and the other metal screen has small openings (about 0.25 cm). Heavy pieces such as coal particles, bone chips, pebbles, brick pieces and sand settle down on first metal screen. Now, water passes through the metal screen with small openings. Small floating matters are removed. The metal screens and the grit chamber are cleaned regularly using mechanical scrapers.
SEWAGE TREATMENT : Primary Treatment (ii) Sedimentation: Waste water enters the sedimentation tank. It has V-shaped bottom with an opening at the bottom to remove the sludge. The screened water enters the sedimentation tank from the bottom and slowly rises upwards. The settleable solid particles are pulled down due to gravity. The rate of settling depends upon the size and density of the particles and the temperature. The water is then out of the chamber while the sludge is removed from the bottom. (iii) Degasification: The waste water is stored in large shallow tanks and exposed to the atmosphere. The dissolved gases escape from the surface. (iv) Oil Separation: Air under high pressure is forced in to waste water containing oil and grease. The water is passed into a low pressure chamber. Since the solubility of air in water decreases, surplus air comes out and the bubbles of these carry the oil with them to the top. The oil is removed by skimming.
Biological Oxygen demand (BOD) is defined as the amount of oxygen required by the micro organisms for the biological oxidation of organic wastes present in one dm3 of waste water for a period of 5 days, at 20C.
World Health Organization (WHO) has imposed a limit of 4 mg dm-3 (4 ppm) on the BOD of raw water to be used for public supply.
SECONDARY TREATMENT: This treatment is also called Biological Treatment. The dissolved and colloidal and soluble organic matter present in waste water after the primary treatment are removed by micro-organisms.
During this process, oxidation of waste result in the formation of simple species like CO2, H2O, nitrates and nitrites. The secondary treatment involves two important processes trickling filter process and activated sludge process. Activated sludge Process:
Activated sludge process The waste water enters specially designed tanks which is either rectangular or circular shaped. It comes in contact with the gelatinous mass which in heavily laden with micro organisms. This mass is called activated sludge. [Bacteria like Azobacter, Bacillus, Escherichia, arthrobacter and achromobacter, fungi like alttermaria, candida, zoophagus and arthobotrys are associated with activated sludge.]
Air is introduced into the tank and the micro organisms bring about biological degradation of waste into species like nitrates, sulphates, CO2 and also synthesis new bacterial cells. The sludge settles down and separated from water. A part of the sludge is retained in the tank for the treatment of fresh batch of waste water. It is a batch process in which the sample is aerated for about 4-10 hours. The quality of the treated effluent is fairly good. About 90-95% BOD removal is possible.
Trickling filter method: Trickling filter consists of a rectangular or circular vessel with a filter bed made up of broken rock, broken bricks or large anthracite coal. Sewage is sprayed over this bed by means of a rotating distributor. As the sewage trickles or percolates downwards through the filter bed, microorganisms grow on the surface of aggregates; they consume materials of the sewage as food. Aerobic conditions are maintained and the purified sewage is removed from the bottom. The process removes 90% of biologically oxidizable impurities.
The secondary treatment the waste water may contain nitrogen in the form of nitrates and ammonia, phosphorous in the form of orthophosphates. In general, the following activities are carried out: Chemical coagulation & filtration Carbon adsorption Chemical oxidation Ammonia stripping Advanced biological treatment
1. Chemical coagulation: Coagulants like aluminium sulfate (alum), ferric sulfate, ferric chloride are added which react with suspended material to form flocs that will settle under the influence of gravity. Recently number of synthetic water soluble polymers have also been developed for use as chemical coagulants. Sedimentation with Coagulation - Finely divided particle suspension can be removed by treating it with a coagulant like alum or Al2(SO4)3 in pressure of sedimentation a tank polyvalent ions help in coagulation and easy settling of the colloidal particles. It is allowed to stand for several hours. Clear water is run off. Removal of Phosphates - These are precipitated chemically as calcium phosphate by adding lime [Ca(OH)2] at a pH above 11. In addition, heavy metal ions can also be precipitated as hydroxides. (ii) Removal of Nitrates - Nitrates are removed by denitrification.
2. Carbon Adsorption Carbon contains active sites that will have positive and negative charges. The waste water is allowed to pass through packs of carbon where they come in contact with charged sites and form bonds, held by adsorption on the carbon. This process effectively removes phosphates (PO4-) Certain organic compounds not removed during secondary treatment and pesticides like DDT are adsorbed on activated carbon.
Dissolved salts can be removed by Ion Exchange process such that the water can be used in high pressure boilers.
Disinfection - Chlorination or ozonisation are carried out to kill pathogenic bacteria. Besides, electrodialysis and reverse osmosis may also be used in tertiary treatment of water.
3. Chemical oxidation: The waste water is treated with strong oxidizing agents like H2O2 and ozone. The available oxygen induces decomposition of organic wastes. The efficiency of removal of organic wastes is high but removal of inorganics is low. Methods like ion-exchange, reverse osmosis and electrodialysis effectively remove ionorganics
DESALINATION PROCESSES
Desalination is a very expensive process and is used in places experiencing an acute shortage of fresh water.
Definition The process of removal of dissolved salts from sea water (or brackish water) to the extent, that water becomes usable is described as 'desalination' or 'desalting'. The important methods of desalination are: (a) Reverse osmosis (b) Electrodialysis
Principle: In reverse osmosis process, the water is separated from dissolved salts by means of a membrane which permits the passage of water through it but not the salts. If such a membrane is placed between brine and pure water, water has a natural tendency to flow through the membrane into the brine due to osmotic pressure.
This natural process may be reversed by applying a pressure on the brine side higher than that of osmotic pressure, when fresh water tends to flow from brine into fresh water. The process which reverses the natural spontaneous osmosis is called "reverse osmosis"
Process: A series of tubes made up of porous material is lined on the inside with extremely thin film of cellulose acetate semi-permeable membrane. These tubes are arranged in parallel array in fresh water.
Pressure
Concentrated solution
Fresh water
Concentrated solution
Fresh water
Pure solvent and solution when separated by a semi-permeable membrane, the solvent will flow through the membrane diluting the solution in the process. The process will continue till concentration of two media becomes equal and it is called osmosis
If pressure is applied to the part of cell containing solution so that it equals osmotic pressure, then there will be no osmosis and hence no flow; if pressure is greater than the osmotic pressure, the solvent will flow from solution compartment to the solvent compartment leaving more concentrated solution in the former. This is reverse osmosis
Brackish water is pumped continuously at high pressure (> 25 atm) through these tubes. Water flows from brackish water into fresh water. The flow of water is proportional to applied pressure which in turn depends on the characteristics of the film. The film may rupture under excessive pressure. Greater the number of tubes, larger is the surface area and, hence, more production of fresh water. Concentrated brine and fresh water are withdrawn through their respective outlets.
Limitation: This method, however, has not yet been used on large scale production of fresh water. The technique is only successful in the recovery of fresh water from brackish water.
This process does appear to have great promise with the development of improved membrane which can withstand high pressure.
Advantages: Process is simple and continuous. It involves no phase changes. The process needs low energy.
(c) ELELCTRODIALYSIS:
Principle: Electrodialysis process is based on the principle that the ions migrate towards oppositely charged electrodes when an emf is applied. The direction of ion's movement is further made specific by using ion-selective permeable membranes. The cation membranes are permeable to only cations while anion membranes are permeable to only anions. The process thus yields pure water by decreasing salt concentration.
The process of decreasing the concentration of salts in saline water using ion-selective membranes under the influence of an applied emf is called 'electrodialysis' .
(c) ELELCTRODIALYSIS:
An electrodialysis cell consists of a series of alternative cation and anion permeable membranes (C & A). The anode is placed near the anion permeable membrane while the cathode is placed near the cation permeable membrane.
A suitable emf depending on the level of salts in brine is applied across the two electrodes immersed in brine.
Under the influence of the applied emf, sodium ions (Na+) move through the cation permeable membrane (C) while anions (CI-) move through the anion permeable membrane (A) from each compartment of 'CA'.
The net result is the depletion of salt content in the 'CA' compartments and an increase in salt concentration in compartments' AC'.
The fresh water produced in ion depleted compartments (CA) is collected and pumped off. The concentrated brine produced in ion concentration compartments, is discharged through the outlet.
4. Ammonia stripping:
The ammonium ions are converted into ammonia by increasing the pH by addition of lime and vigorous agitation in the presence of air. This process drives ammonia from dissolved state into its gaseous form where it is released into the atmosphere.
Sugar Industry
Wastewater Treatment
Lagoons
Trickling Filters
Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) Reactor Activated Sludge Treatment
Sugar Industry
Lagoons
Anaerobic lagoons
Facultative lagoons
Aerobic lagoons Maturation ponds
Sugar Industry
Lagoons
Trickling Filter
Sugar Industry
Levels of Treatment
Primary
removal by physical separation of grit and large objects (material to landfill for disposal)
Secondary
aerobic microbiological process (sludge) organic matter + O2 CO2 + NH3 + H2O NH3 NO3-
nutrient
Secondary process
To tertiary process
air diffuser
anaerobic microbiological process with a different microbe where O2 is toxic (more sludge) NO3- N2 (escapes to atmosphere) PO4-3 if not removed in sludge in secondary process PO4-3 + Al+3 AlPO4 (s) (into sludge)
Tertiary process
add methanol as food source
Effluent
Wastewater Characteristics
Classification of Methods
Physical Processes
Screening Sedimentation Filtration
Chemical Processes
Precipitation Chlorination
Biological Processes
Aerobic Anaerobic