The Software Challenge

People may come and go, but software may remain A software product is often expected to be used for an extended period of time by someone who did not write the program and who is not intimately familiar with its internal design Software may evolve New features may be added, environments may change, so initial specification may be incomplete

The Software Specification Challenge

Software specification is not easy It should be generated at the beginning of project and maintained up-to-date while the software goes through changes It should be clarified through extensive interaction between the users and the system analyst, and then approved by the users It should be clear and understandable to any programmer

The Software Life Cycle The Life and Death of Software

Software products go through several stages as they mature from initial concept to finished product The sequence of stages is called a life cycle

Software Life Cycle Models

Waterfall model: simplest way of organizing activities that transform software from one stage to another Activities are performed in sequence and the results of one flows into the next

Waterfall Model
1 2 3 4 5 Requirements (requirements are determined) Analysis (requirements are analyzed) Design (components are designed) Implementation (components are implemented) Testing (components are assembled and tested as a whole)

Software Life Cycle Models

Waterfall model is simple but unworkable Fundamental flaw is assumption that each stage can and must be completed before the next one occurs Sometimes, it is not until the product is finished that the user can fully express his or her requirements

Software Life Cycle Activities

1) Requirements Specification 2) Design
a. Architectural Design b. Component Design c. Detailed Design

4) Test
a. Unit Test b. Integration Test c. Acceptance Test

5) Installation 6) Maintenance

3) Implementation

Design Principles in Software Life Cycle Activities

Top-down approach: breaking a system into a set of smaller subsystems Object-oriented approach: identification of a set of objects and specification of their interactions UML diagrams are a design tool to illustrate the interactions between Classes Classes and external entities

Requirements Analysis, Use Cases, and Sequence Diagrams

First step in analysis is to study the problem of input and output requirements carefully to make sure they are understood and make sense Use case: list of the user actions and system responses for a particular sub-problem in the order that they are likely to occur Sequence diagram: shows all the objects involved in this use case across the horizontal axis, time is shown along the vertical axis

Pre- and Postconditions

Precondition: a statement of any assumptions or constraints on the method data before the method begins execution Postcondition: a statement that describes the result of executing a method

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Using Abstraction to Manage Complexity

Abstraction is a model of a physical entity or activity Abstraction helps programmers deal with complex issues in a piecemeal fashion Procedural abstraction: distinguish what is to be achieved by a procedure from its implementation

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Using Abstraction to Manage Complexity (contd)

Data abstraction: specify the data objects for a problem and the operations to be performed on them without concern for their representation in memory Representation of a data object is irrelevant to other classes that access to it only via its methods Information hiding: concealing the details of a class implementation from users of the class

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An Example: Telephone Directory

Maintain a collection of telephone directory entries, where each entry is referred to by a unique name. Can read from a file, save to a file, lookup, add, remove, and change phone number

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Dependencies Among Possible Actions

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Object Relations

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Things you already know (about) ...

Java programs (you know and love) Classes and objects (you can create and use) Inheritance (you understand and can extend) Abstract classes (you remember what they are) Interfaces (your contractual obligations)

Interfaces are a key idea in CSC220

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Interfaces
The interface specifies the names, parameters, and return values of the ADT methods without specifying how the methods perform their operations and without specifying how the data is internally represented Each class that implements an interface must provide the definitions of all methods declared in the interface

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Interfaces
You cannot instantiate an interface; that is, cant invoke new INTERFACE_NAME You can declare a variable that has an interface type and use it to reference an actual object A Java interface is a contract between the interface designer and the programmer who codes a class that implements the interface

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Public Methods of PhoneDirectory Interface

Method public void loadData(String fileName) Action Loads the data from the data file whose name is given by fileName Changes the number of the individual with the name to the number

public String addOrChangeEntry(String name, String number)

public String lookupEntry(String name)

public String removeEntry(String name) public void saveData(String fileName)

Searches the directory for the name

Removes the entry with the given name Saves the data in a load-able format in the data file whose name is given by fileName

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The PDUserInterface Interface

There is only one required public method, processCommands, which takes input from the user and executes the command Two different implementations: PDGUI: a GUI-based implementation PDConsoleUI: a console-based implementation

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PDGUI: Implementation as GUI

Uses JOptionPane dialog windows
String[] commands = {"Add/Change Entry", "Look Up Entry, "Remove Entry", "Save Directory", "Exit};

do {
choice = JOptionPane.showOptionDialog( null, Select a Command, PhoneDirectory, JOptionPane.YES_NO_CANCEL_OPTION, JOptionPane.QUESTIONE_MESSAGE, null, command, command[commands.length 1]); switch (choice) { case 0: doAddChangeEntry(); break; case 1: doLookupEntry(); break; case 2: doRemoveEntry(); break; case 3: case 4: doSave(): break; default: // Do nothing. } } while (choice != commands.length 1); // No parent // Prompt message // window title // Option type // Message type // Accompanying icon // Choice names (array) // Default command

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PDConsoleUI: Implementation Using a Console

Uses System.out to display the menu of choices and results. It also uses a Scanner object (scIn) created out of System.in to read data from the keyboard.
// Constructor /** Default constructor. */ public PDConsoleUI() { scIn = new Scanner(System.in); } choice = scIn.nextInt(); // Get next choice. scIn.nextLine(); // Skip trailing newline.

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ArrayBasedPD that Implements PhoneDirectory Interface, Private Data Fields

Data Field private static final int INITIAL_CAPACITY Attribute The initial capacity of the array (or the array size). It has the final attribute so change is not allowed. The current capacity (or the array size), so the capacity changes The number of entries held in the directory The directory realized as an array of DirectoryEntry objects

private int capacity private int size private DirectoryEntry[] theDirectory

private String fileName

private boolean modified

The name of the data file

A boolean variable that maintains whether any change has been made to any entry since the last time the data were saved or loaded. Data is automatically saved at closing if this variable is true.

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The Private Methods of the ArrayBasedPD Class

Private Method Action

private int find(String name)

Searches the array for the name and returns the position of the name; -1 indicates that the name was not found
Adds to the array a new entry with the given name and number

private void add(String name, String number)

private void reallocate()

Creates a new array with twice the capacity of the current one with the same entries

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DirectoryEntry Class
Data Field private String name private String number Constructor public DirectoryEntry(String name, String number) Method public String getName() public String getNumber() public void setNumber(String number) Attribute The name of an individual The phone number of the individual Action Create an entry with the name and the number Action Retrieves the name of an individual Retrieves the number of an individual Sets the number of an individual to the give number 25

Implementing and Testing the Array-Based Phone Directory

The main loop of ReadData has two notable points
The while and if statements combine an assignment with a conditional statement The break statement allows exiting of the while loop without storing an entry

// Read each name and number and add the entry to the array. BufferedReader in = new BufferedReader(new FileReader(new File (this.filename))) while ((name = in.readLine()) != null) { // Read name and number from successive lines. if ((number = in.readLine()) != null) { break; } // No number read, exit loop. // Add an entry for this name and number. this.add(name, number); }

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Code Reuse
A part of program can be reused for other programs If there is a code for maintaining a phone book (adding, removing, editing, loading, and storing), some of the ideas and concepts used for the code can be used for writing a code for maintaining business cards.

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Maximizing Code Reuse

View the program to be developed as a process of dealing with data The data has to be maintained during execution of the program The data may be read from and/or stored into files The data may be generated from input Various operations on the data may be performed

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Abstract Data Types

Abstract data type (ADT) = the combination of data together with its methods (how the data objects are accessed) ADTs specify a set of required methods, but do not specify how those methods should be implemented (thats why they are called abstract) Data structures quite often refer to ADTs For frequently used ADTs the most efficient universal (applicable to the vast majority of programming languages) implementations are known

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