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June 28, 2002

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- To buildup and maintain constant terminal voltage.
- To supply reactive power to the system.
- Other sources of reactive power are:
- Generatortransformer.
- Synchronous condenser.
- Series / shunt compensation.
- To keep the generator parameters within the
Capability chart.
Functions of an Excitation System
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- To protect the transformer from overfluxing.

- To ensure system stability in DYNAMIC state by
providing damping to the electromechanical
transients.
Functions of an Excitation System
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- To ensure system stability under TRANSIENT
conditions.
- To ensure fast voltage recovery after fault
clearance.
- Also, most of the generator protection features can
be incorporated.
Functions of an Excitation System
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Evolution of Excitation Systems
Over 40 Years of Static Exciter Design Experience
1960 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
00
Static Excitation
Alterrex
Althyrex
Generrex / Shunt SCR
Bus Fed
Digital
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Various Types of Excitation Systems
- DC excitation through DC exciter (Figure 1)
- AC excitation through AC exciter (Figure 2)
- Brushless excitation through AC exciter and rotating diodes
(Figure 3)
- Static excitation system (Figure 4)
- Most commonly used Excitation Systems
Brushless excitation system
Static excitation system

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Excitation System with DC Exciter
SCR
PT
CT
E G
Feedback to
Regulator
Feed from Generator Terminals
or Auxiliary Bus
Figure 1
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Excitation System with AC Exciter
SCR
PT
CT
E G
Feedback to
Regulator
Feed from Generator Terminals
or Auxiliary Bus
Figure 2
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Excitation System with Brushless Exciter
SCR
PT
CT
E G
Feedback to
Regulator
Feed from Generator Terminals
or Auxiliary Bus
Figure 3
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Static Excitation System
SCR
PT
CT
G
Feed from Generator Terminals
or Auxiliary Bus
Field
Flashing
Figure 4
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+
-

CONTROLLER
FEEDBACK

SYSTEM

SENSOR
REFERENCE
INPUT

CONTROLLED
OUTPUT
ERROR
SIGNAL

DISTURBANCES

A Feedback Control System
E
Figure 5
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General Functional Block Diagram for
Excitation Control System
Excitation
Control
Elements
Exciter
Voltage
Transducer /
Load
Compensator
Synchronous
Machine / Power
System
PSS and
Other
Controls
V
REF

V
UEL

V
OEL

V
c

V
R

V
T

V
S1

E
FD
I
FD

I
T

Figure 6
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General Arrangement of Static Excitation System
AC/DC
Field Flashing
Stator
Current
Limiter
Rotor
Angle
Limiter
Power
System
Stabilizer
Auto Control
Rotor
Current
Limiter
Excitation
Transformer
Protection
EXCITATION
TRANSFORMER
Figure 7
FIELD
BREAKER
Inner Loop Control
Auto
Reference
Value
Manual
Reference
SCR
PT
CT
G
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Major Feedback Control Systems
Affecting Generator Parameters
- LoadFrequency control loop (PF loop).

- Reactive PowerVoltage control loop (QV loop).
- Relation between Q, V & PF.

- Is there any interaction between PF & QV control loops?
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Ceiling Voltage
- It is the maximum (positive or negative) voltage that can be
injected on the field under specified conditions. In static
excitation system ceiling voltage ranges from 1.62.0 times
the rated one (Figure 8).

- Acts for up to 10 seconds.

- Decides fastness of change of excitation.

Basic Concepts of Excitation System
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IEEE 421 High Initial Response Definition
Attain 95% of Ceiling Voltage
in 100 m sec. or less
EX2000 reaches 95% of
Ceiling Voltage in 25 m sec.
V
field
0.95 (V
ceiling
V
rated
)
V
ceiling
V
rated
Time (sec.)
0.025
0.5
Conventional
Rotating Exciter
HIR Exciter
0.1
EX2000
Figure 8
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Response
- It is the rate of change (increase or decrease) of excitation
system output voltage.
- Response ratio is generally obtained as the excitation
system response in volts per seconds measured over first
0.5 seconds (Figure 9).
Steady State Accuracy
- This indicates the steady state error offered by the system.

Basic Concepts of Excitation System
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V
O
V
t
V
F
Time (Seconds)
V
F
V
O

RESPONSE RATIO =
0.5
0.5
Figure 9
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General Block Representation
- Time Constant (Figure 10).
- Integrator (Figure 11).
- LeadLag Network (Figure 12).



Basic Concepts of Excitation System
PID Controls
- Proportional Control (Output error signal)
- Integral Control (Output is Difference between initial & final values)
- Derivative Control (Output is rate of change of error signal)


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Simple Integrator with Limiter
1
s
U
X
Y
B
A
dy / dt = U
If A >= y >= B, then x = y
If y > A, then x = A
If y < B, then x = B
Figure 10
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1
1 + sT
U
X
Y
B
A
dy / dt = (u y) / T
If B <= y < = A, then x = y
If y > A, then x = A
If y < B, then x = B
Simple Time Constant
Figure 11
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1+sT
1

1+sT
2

U
X
Y
B
A
If T
1
= T
2
, then y = u
If B <=y <= A, then x = y
If y > A, then x = A
If y < B, then x = B
LagLead Block
Figure 12
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General Specifications

Overall response (Figure 13)

- Overshoot / undershoot which should ideally be limited to one
overshoot and one undershoot.

- Rise time should be very small.

- Settling time should be as short as possible.


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OVERSHOOT
SETTLING TIME
(95% VALUE)
TIME
RISE TIME
1.0
0.9








0.1
General Specifications
Figure 13
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Technical Features
- Maintains constant terminal voltage.

- AC power tapped from generator terminals / PMG / Auxiliary
source.

- Rectified through 3|, fullwave rectification using Diodes /
Thyristors controlled through the Regulator.

- Frequency range 4752 Hz.
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- Range of excitation control in Manual channel 75125%.

- Range of Auto control 90110%.

- Voltage control accuracy 0.5%.

- Maximum change in terminal voltage after Auto to Manual
changeover 1%.
Technical Features
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- Response ratio 35.

- Fast response (typically 50 milliseconds for analog
systems and ~ 20 milliseconds for digital regulators).

- % Transformer compensation up to 15%.

- Keeps the machine within the stability region.
Technical Features
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- Protects the generator transformer from overfluxing.

- Provides damping to electromechanical oscillations.
Technical Features
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- Excitation system maintains system stability (LoadAngle Diagram).
- AVR provides both Synchronizing & Damping torque.
- Damping is important under steady state. Voltage response is
secondary.

- Effect of AVR is to reduce stability region in PQ plane.
- Introduction of PSS enhances stability region in PQ plane.

- AVR gain reduction in transient condition (Figures 14 & 15).

Technical Aspects
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V
ref

V
t

+

+
+


1 + s T
B


1 + s T
C



s K
F


1 + s T
F



K
AVR


1 + s T
A



1

1 + s T
R


E
fd

V
S

IEEE Type ST1A Transfer Function Model of
Static Excitation System
Transfer function
of terminal
Voltage transducer
Figure 14
E
E
Transient Gain
Reduction (TGR)
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Transfer function
of terminal
voltage transducer
E
fd

+

+

1

1 + s T
R


V
t

V
ref

V
S


K
A


1 + s T
A


Simplified IEEE Type ST1A Transfer Function
Model of Static Excitation System
(Transient Condition)
Figure 15
E
K
A
= K
AVR
* T
B
/ T
C

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Capability Chart
Indicates the operating parameters like MW, MVAR, KV, KA, Field volts,
Field current, Power factor, Load angle and Operating margins of the
machine.
Development of Capability Chart for a TurboGenerator
INFINITEBUS
V, F = FIXED
G
EZo X
d
VZ0
X
d
= X
d

Machine
+ X
External


o = Power angle for generator
Figure 16
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jIX
d


I

A

V

B

E

O

o

|

This is a voltage triangle.
Divide all sides by jXd.
I

A

V/X

B

E/X
O

o

|

V

This is a current triangle.
VI

A

V
2
/X
d


B

EV/X
d

O

o

|

Ceiling
Excitation
2Per Unit
Excitation
P
Theoretical
Limit
Q + Q
1 Per Unit
Excitation
Multiplying current triangle by V converts the
current triangle into a power triangle.
Figure 17
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Analysis
Point B: operating point of the machine

V/x
d
indicates I
f0


I
f0
is the field current at no load, which produces generation
voltage equal to the terminal voltage.

At no load o = 0, E = V
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+Q is the reactive power delivered to system
Q is the reactive power absorbed from the system
The operating point lies on a certain excitation locus.
For any excitation the maximum power delivered to the system
is achieved for o = 90.
The maximum reactive power absorbed = V
2
/ Xd.
E V
P = Sin o = V I Cos |
X
d

Analysis
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Constraints on Capability Chart
- Turbine capacity (MW limit)

- Stator current limitation

- Ceiling excitation limitation

- Practical stability limit

- Minimum excitation corresponding to 10% of rated power

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VI

A

V
2
/X
d


B

EV/X
d

O

o

|

P
Q + Q
1 Per Unit
Excitation
Ceiling
Excitation
MW Limit
Field
Current
Limit
Stator
Current
Limit
Theoretical
Limit
Practical
Limit
Minimum
Excitation
Limit
Figure 18
Capability Chart
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Start up Sequence
Turbine start / Speed up
Adjust AC reference
Synchronizing
Power System
Field flashing command Field breaker closing
Voltage build up on AC
Field flashing stops at 70% KV
Full speed & rated voltage
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Constant voltage Constant VAR
Constant PF
AVR modes of operation
Different AVR Modes
Figure 19
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- Field breaker is used to limit the fault current and also to
avoid high voltage across the rotor. It also discharges the
stored energy through field discharge resistance (Figure 20).

- They are generally DC breakers.

- Single pole or double pole breakers used.
Generator field breaker
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Over-voltage
Protection
Excitation
System
Field Discharge
Resistance

Generator
Rotor
Generator Field Breaker
Generator field breaker
Figure 20
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- Field discharge resistance (nonlinear) is provided.
- They are makebeforebreak type.
- While closing discharge pole opens first and the main pole
closes later.
- While opening discharge pole closes first and the main poles
open later.
- The rise and decay in field current is not too fast due to large
time constant of the field. So minor overlapping will not matter
much. However, the condition of the contacts must be monitored
during annual overhauls.
Generator field breaker
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- Over voltage protection (thyristorised / vacuum based) to check
induced voltage rise during any fault on stator side.
- Basic components of field breakers are:
- Main poles
- Discharge poles with arc chutes
- Closing coil
- Trip coil
- Auxiliary circuits
Generator field breaker
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Field Flashing Circuit
- Required for starting the excitation system.
- Startup may be through AC and / or DC supply (Figure 21).
- During starting voltage buildsup to 30% due to field flashing only.
- At 30% voltage level, the excitation system gets activated
sufficiently and starts functioning. The two raise the voltage level to
70%. At 70% field flashing gets cut off and excitation system works
independently. The auto changeover is realized through a voltage
operated relay.
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Generator
Excitation
System
Generator
Rotor
AC
DC
Generator
Field
Breaker
Field Flashing Circuit
Figure 21
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- Serves as power source for the excitation system.
- Primary is connected to the generator terminals.
- Secondary is connected to the thyristors / regulator.
- Selection of transformer depends on the fieldforcing voltage and
the maximum continuous current in the field winding.
- Location of transformer : generally at zero meter level. The free
surrounding area must be sufficient enough to maintain proper
ventilation and ambient temperature.
Excitation Transformer
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- Usually a dry, cast coil type of stepdown transformer (Rated volts
/ Nominal volts). This results in reduction of size of the transformer.
- Have high overload capacity. Heating time constant is 610 times
higher than the oil filled transformer.
- Impulse strength is comparable to that of oil cooled transformer.
- Cast coil resin is nonhygroscopic.
- There is no partial discharge.

Excitation Transformer
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Excitation Transformer
- Possibility of liquid leaking is absent.
- Maintenancefree. No dry out required even after a long shutdown.
- The transformer is generally aircooled with cooling fans which
operate on overtemperature.
- Connection DY.
- Standards for manufacturing : BS171, IEC76, ANSI, CS7 and VDE
0532.
- Enclosure is made to IP 20, IP 21 and IP 23.
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G
Transformer
Protection
Rotor
Current
Limiter

AVR

Thyristors

Power
Supply
REGULATOR
Power
Supply
AUTO
Power
Supply
MANUAL
Excitation Transformer
Figure 22
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- Overload/shortcircuit protection through excitation transformer
overcurrent instantaneous and delayed relay (Figure 22).
(Settings: Instantaneous200% In, Delayed120% In).

- The CTs are mounted on the primary side of excitation
transformer.

- The relays must attenuate the harmonics as they receive signal
from machine terminals.
Excitation Transformer Protection
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Excitation Transformer Protection
- Twostage (Alarm / Trip) overtemperature protection achieved
through thermisters embedded in all the three limbs of the
transformer.

- Phase unbalance protection to protect uneven loading of all the
phases.
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- Dual power supply (DC / AC) with filter
- Reference setting controller: DC (Manual) / AC
- DC limiter
- Inner loop regulator
- Pulse generator
- Pulse amplifier
- Pulse transformer
- Thyristors
Manual / DC Control
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Filter
Gate
Control
Pulse
Amplifier
Pulse
Final Stage
Manual / DC
Limiter
Manual / DC
Reference
Control
Pulse
Transformer
Thyristors
Manual / DC Control
Figure 23
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- Output of excitation system is controlled by controlling the firing
angle of thyristors which in turn controls the conduction of
thyristors (Figures 24, 25 & 26).
- Cooled by fans: monitoring through cooling flow monitoring
system. Cooling of thyristors is monitored by:
- Monitoring the status of supply continuously.
- Through airflow monitoring unit during running.
Thyristor Bridges
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Thyristor Bridges
- Thyristors provided with RC networks for protection against hole
storage effect.
- Blocking of thyristors is achieved by:
- Monitoring the isolators with microswitches.
- Overcurrent protection of thyristors through semi conductor
fuse.
- Healthiness of fuse is checked through microswitches or
monitoring system.
- Reactors are provided for smooth voltage buildup.

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LOAD
3 Phase
AC
R
Y
B

3

5

6

2

1

4

+


Thyristor Bridges
Figure 24
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CONDUCTION
OF
THYRISTOR
30 60 90 FIRING ANGLE (o)

U
ST
>0

U
ST
=0

U
ST
<0 VOLTS
Thyristor Bridges
Figure 25
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0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
R(+) Y(+) B(+) R(+)
Y(-) B(-) R(-) Y(-)
AC

SUPPLY
Thyristor Bridges (Diodes)
Figure 26
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Thyristor Bridges
- More number of thyristor bridges for higher redundancy.
- N is the number of bridges.
- N1 meets full load requirements.
- N2 meets partial load (65%).
- Rated field current = 2650 amps, Number of thyristors = 4
- Capacity of each set = 1000 amps
- N = 4, field current = 4000 amps, N = 3, field current = 3000 amps
- N = 2, field current = 2000 amps, N = 1, field current = 1000 amps
- Best redundancy is obtained when two identical sets of thyristors are
used for obtaining 100% redundancy.

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- Dual power supply (DC / AC) with filter.
- AC reference setting controller
- Automatic voltage regulator (AVR)
- Limit acting regulators
- Pulse generator
- Pulse amplifier
- Pulse transformer
- Thyristors
Elements of AC Control Circuit
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- Receives voltage and current feedback signals through the
respective transducers.
- Converts the feedback signals into a proportional DC signal i.e.
generates actual value signal.
- Receives the voltage reference signal through AC voltage
reference setting circuits.
- Compares the actual value with the reference setting i.e.
performs error detection.
Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) Circuits
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- Feeds the error to the control amplifier.
- AVR control amplifier produces minimum conduction signal if
the error is maximum and vice versa.
- Control amplifier adjusts the conduction of thyristors / diodes
depending on the error signal (by shifting the position of firing
pulses).
- Output of the thyristor alters according to the control signal.
Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) Circuits
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- Field voltage and the field current vary depending on the thyristors /
diode conduction.

- Generator terminal voltage changes, accordingly.

- Actual value signal changes and becomes equal to reference signal.

- Output of AVR varies to ensure terminal voltage corresponding to the
reference signal.
Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) Circuits
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AC Control
Pulse
Transformer
Thyristors


AUTOMATIC

VOLTAGE

REGULATOR

(AVR)
AC
Limiter
AUTO
Reference
Control
Comparator and
Follow-up
Figure 27
Power System
Stabilizer
Stator Current
Limiter
Rotor Current
Limiter
Rotor Angle
Limiter
V / Hz
Limiter
PT / CT
Feedback
Pulse
Supervision
Pulse
Amplifier
Pulse
Final Stage
Filter
Gate
Control
Voltage
Supervision
MANUAL
Reference
Control
Gate
Control
Pulse
Amplifier
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- Ensures unit operation at constant PF / VAR.

- If operating in constant PF mode, VAR undergoes changes
during operation.

- If operating in constant VAR mode, PF undergoes changes
during operation.
PF / VAR Controller
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V / Hz Limiter
Limit Acting Regulators
- Avoids overfluxing of the transformer.

- Protects against overvoltages at normal frequencies.

- Protects against normal voltages at lower frequencies.
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- Avoids thermal overloading of the stator windings.

- In case of inductive current, a time delay is introduced and
excitation is reduced.

- In capacitive mode, it acts on AVR instantaneously by
increasing the excitation.
Stator Current Limiter
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- Avoids thermal overloading of the rotor windings.

- Acts after a delay giving enough time to reach ceiling excitation
limit and allowing sufficient time required for the rate of rise of
the field current.
Rotor Current Limiter
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- Acts when the rotor angle exceeds a set point.

- Excitation is increased to restrict load angle.
Rotor Angle Limiter
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- AVR is allowed to demand reactive power (underexcited
reactive current) from the synchronous machine.

- Ensures minimum magnetization to avoid excessive heating of
the armature core and the end structure due to eddy current set
up by armature reaction flux rotating at synchronous speed.

- Original designed as a slow controller but is now applied in
faster control loops.
Under Excitation or Minimum Excitation Limiter
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VI

A

V
2
/X
d


B

EV/X
d

O

o

|

P
Q + Q
1 Per Unit
Excitation
Ceiling
Excitation
MW Limit
Field
Current
Limit
Stator
Current
Limit
Theoretical
Limit
Practical
Limit
Minimum
Excitation
Limit
Figure 28
Capability Chart
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