Mechanics

AP200
Dr. C. W. Ong

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Textbook :
Engineering Mechanics, Dynamics,
by Meriam, J.L., Kraige, L.G.,
John Wiley 1997 4th Ed.

Mechanics of Engineering
Materials , by P.R. Benham and
R.J. Crawford, ELBS, 1988

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Assessment method :

■ Course Work 30% (Exercises and tests)

■ Examination 70%

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 Vector
A vector consists of two things : A
1. Magnitude, represented by a
number A
2. Direction, represented by a ê
unit vector ê A
 
A =Ae A
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In Cartesian coordination system

A = Aeˆ A
= A(cos α x̂ + sin α yˆ )
= Ax xˆ + Ay yˆ
Y


A
AY
α
X
AX

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Addition of vectors
  
A = AX i + AY j
  
B = BX i + BY j
   
A + B = ( AX + BX )i + ( AY + BY ) j

Y 
BY    
B A+ B = C

  B'
AY  Bx
A 
A
 X
AX

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 3-D Cartesian coordination system
Z
 ê
A = A eˆ A
   
A
= A cos α i + A cos β j + A cos γ k γ
β
  
= AX i + AY j + AZ k α Y
X

Direction cosine : cosα , cosβ ,

cosγ

A = A 2 +A 2 +A 2 =A
X Y Z

=( A cos 2α+A cos 2 β+A 2 cos

2 2 2
γ)1/ 2
=A (cos 2α+cos 2 β+cos 2 γ)1 / 2
cos 2α+cos 2 β+cos 2 γ =1
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Dot product :

Result of dot product is a scalar A⋅ B = C

Definition is : A ⋅ B ≡ AB cosθ

A
θ

A cos θ 
B

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Cross product
  
Result is a new vector
  A ×B =C
Definition : A × B = AB sin θ , and

C is ⊥ to the two vectors, with direction
determined by right hand rule.


C
F sinθ
 
B F
O θ
θ  d
A

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   
Exercise : Show that ( A × B) ⋅ C
is the volume of the parallelepiped
formed by the three vectors

    
A = AX i + AY j + AZ k A


B
 
C =C Z k

     C Z
B = BY j +BZ k ( A × B) ⋅ C

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 Presentation of vector product in
rectangular coordination system
   
A = AX i + AY j + Az k
   
B = BX i + BY j + Bz k


Dot product : ( A ⋅ B) = AX BX + AY BY + AZ BZ

Cross product :
  
i j k

A × B = AX AY AZ
BX BY BZ
     
= AY BZ i + AX BY k + B X AZ j − B A
X Y k − A B
X Z j − B A
Y Z i
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Fundamental of Mechanics of
Materials
Stress and strain :

A 
   F 
F F F  F
F

Assume F is uniformly distributed over the

cross-sectional area A.

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Normal stress

σ≡
F
A
[N / m2 ] pascal ( Pa)

δF dF
Normal stress at a point : σ = lim =
δA → 0 δA dA

δF P 
F

δA

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Total force F acting on a cross-sectional
area is :

F = ∫ σ dA
A

 
F F Tensile stress (+)

 
F F Compressive stress (-)

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Shear stress :
Force F is tangential to the area.

A F
A

Fixed area
F

F
τ≡
Define shear stress :

A
dF
At a local point : τ =
dA

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Normal strain :
A body deformed along the direction of stress. Normal strain is defined to describe the deformation :

x
ε≡



F F
l x

Shear strain : x
Deformation under shear stress is defined as γ ≡

x F

γ

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 Elastic modulus
Stress-strain curve Work
Stress hardening
Yield pt. break
Elastic
deformation

o Strain

In the elastic region, σ α ε (Hooke's law)

Young’s modulus (modulus of elasticity) E = σ / ε
Shear modulus : (modulus of rigidity) G = τ /γ

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Examp dx
le 5mm W
15mm 2kN
o
0.6m 1.2m
Find the total X
extension of
the bar. ✦ The width of a cross-sectional element at x :
x x
W= (5 × 10 −3 m) = ( m)
✦ The stress in this element : 0.6m 120

2 × 10 3
N 2 . 88 × 107
✦
σ =of this element:
The strain
2 2
= 2
Pa
( x / 120) m x

σ 2.88 × 107 / x 2 1.92 × 10−4

ε= = =
E 150× 10 9
x2
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The extension of this element :
1.92 ×10 −4
de = εdx = 2
dx
x
∴ The total extension for the whole bar becomes :

1 .8 1.92 ×10 −4
e = ∫ de = ∫ 2
dx
0 .6 x

= 2.13 x 10-4 m #

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Bulk modulus : K=
δp
− (δV / V )

δp
V + δV

dp
At a local pointlim: δ V → 0 then K = −V
dV

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Poisson's ratio :
For homogeneous isotropic materials
d d + ∆d

F F

 x
x
■ normal strain : ε=

lateral strain :
∆d
■

■ Poisson's ratio : εL =
■ value of ν : 0.2 - 0.5 d
ν ≡ −ε L / ε

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Analysis of stress and strain in
Isotropic Materials.
σ x ν σy ν σz
εx = − − ......(*)
E E E
σ y ν σx ν σz
εy = − −
E E E
σ z ν σx ν σy
εz = − −
σz E E E

τ zx τ zy z
τ yz
τ xz σy
y
τ xy τ yx x
σx
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Rewrite (*) by x ⇒ xx, y ⇒yy , z ⇒ zz :

ε xx = (σ xx − ν σyy − ν σzz ) / E
ε yy = (σ yy − ν σzz − ν σxx ) / E
ε zz = (σ zz − ν σxx − ν σyy ) / E

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 −E
Exercise : Verify K =
3(1 − 2ν )

Solution
From (*) 1 +ν ν
ε xx = σ xx − (σ xx + σ yy + σ zz )
E E
(1 +ν ) ν
ε yy = σ yy − (σ xx + σ yy + σ zz )
E E
(1 +ν ) ν
ε zz = σ zz − (σ xx + σ yy + σ zz )
E E
(1 − 2ν )
ε xx + ε yy + ε zz = (σ xx + σ yy + σ zz )
E

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For hydrostatic pressure
σ xx = σ yy = σ zz = ∆p
ε xx = ε yy = ε zz = ε (symmetry)
∆r
4 4
π (r − ∆r )3 − π r 3
∆V 3 3
V
=
4 3 r
πr
3
∆r
≅ −3 ( ) = −3ε
r
(1 − 2ν )
=− (3∆p )
E
∆p −E
∴ K ≡− =
∆V / V 3(1 − 2ν )
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Shear stress and strain
Take moment about the z axis, total torque = 0,
so τ xy = τ yx y
τ xy

∆y τ yx
x
z ∆x

Similarly, take moment about x-axis, ⇒

τ yz = τ zy

Take moment about y-axis, ⇒ τ xz =τ zx

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Shear strain :

γ xy = τ xy / G
γ yz = τ yz / G
γ zx = τ zx / G

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 dy dx
Shear deformation is usually defined by : , ,...etc.
∆x ∆y
dy dx
However, pure rotation may cause non-zero and
∆x ∆y
which cannot be used to represent any deformation

One better method is to select axes appropriately, such that

dy dx
= = ε xy = ε yx = γ/2
∆x ∆y
y y Pure y
rotation
γ
dy dy 2
x x γ /2 x
∆x ∆x
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Example : Show that ε n =ε yx

(AC)2(1+ε n)2 = (AD)2 + (AD)2 -2(AD)2 cos(90o+γ )

2(AD)2 (1+ε n)2 = 2(AD)2+2(AD)2 sin γ
1+2ε n = 1 + sin γ ≈ 1+γ
y
2ε n ≈ γ
C’
since γ = 2 ε yx
C
ε n= ε yx
γ
2
D’
A γ /2 x
D

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 σn
εn =
Example : Show that 2G

σ yx (lW) sin 45o x2 = LW σ n (equilibrium along n-

direction)
= 2(l cos 45o) W σ n

Therefore σ yx = σ n σ xy σ n
From definition : γ xy = = = 2ε n σn
G G ∴ε n =
y σ
2G
yx
l σ
σ xy
yx

l L
γ /2 σ xy
σ n
A γ /2 x
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 E
Example : Show 1+υ
= 2G

1 +ν ν
ε xx = σ xx − (σ xx + σ yy + σ zz ) (from p.24)
E E -σ
Set σ xx =σ n =-σ yy , n

σ = 0, σ n σ
zz n

ε xx =ε n -σ n

ε n = (1+ν ) σ n /E = σ n /2G (previous

example)
E
∴ = 2G
1+υ

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Example ✦ (i) Here ε x = 0, σ y = 0 and
− 12 × 103 N
The cube of isotropic σz = −3 2
= −3 × 10 7
Pa
material has side 20mm, (20 ×10 m)
E = 60 GPa, ν = 0.3.
✦ Since : 1
ε x = (σ x − υ σy − υ σz )
(i) Find the force exerted by E
1
the restraining walls upon the ∴ 0 = [σ x − 0 − 0.3 × ( −3 × 10 7
)]
block. 60 ×10 9

(ii)Find the strain in y ✦ ∴ σ x = -9 x 106 Pa (compressive stress)

direction
z ✦ The force exerted by the restraining wall :
y ✦ Aσ = (20 x 10-3 m)2 x (-9 x 106 Pa)
x

✦ = -3.6 x 103 N (compressive force)

12kN
✦ (ii) The strain in y direction :
1
ε y = (σ y − υ σz − υ σx )
E
x
1
= [ 0 − 0 .3 × ( − 3 × 107
) − 0 .3 × ( − 9 × 106
)]
60 × 109
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 Elastic Strain Energy
F ✦ The energy store in the material :
F x
dU = Fdx = AE ( )dx
 
dx ✦ ∴ The energy store :
dW = Fdx eAE
U =∫ ( x)dx e=extension
0 
F/A
E= 1 AEe 2 1 e 2
x/ = = E ( ) ( A)
2  2 
1 2
= Eε ⋅ V
2
✦ ∴ Energy density within the material :
U 1 2 1 σ2
u ≡ = Eε =
V 2 2 E
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Similarly for shear strain :
dx
F
 
U =∫ F ⋅ dx = ∫ Fdx

F/A τ 1 1 τ 2
G= = ∴u = G γ 2 =
x/ γ 2 2G

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