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I. Intro
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Limestones are biochemical rocks Composed of CaCO3 1. Calcite, Aragonite Calcium carbonate sediments depend on: 1. Temperature 2. Pressure 3. Agitation Abundance of calcareousshelled organisms 1. abundant light 2. constant so/oo 3. clear, warm water 1. Organisms like shallow water, away from river
i. e.g. reefs on platform margin ii. if no reef, ooid shoals--oosparite i. poor preservation - storms ii. seds transported offshore/onshore (tidal flats, channels) i. micrite/biomicrite/pelmicrite
V. Reefs --Defined
A. a reef - structure constructed of large elements (usually > 5 cm) capable of thriving in energetic environments
Reef Facies
E. Behind the reef are muddy carbonate sediments that contain lots of marine organisms
http://wrgis.wr.usgs.gov/open-file/of01448/images/fig18.jpg
1. Shallow water shelves have grassy covered sands and muds on their inner parts and skeletal sands and patch reefs on the outer parts while 2. deep water shelves (lagoons with water depths < 30m) are floored by muds.
Growth of Rim
Belize
belizemodernfacies.com/?page_id=19
strata.geol.sc.edu/.../Sea_Level_Changes.htm
A. E.g. Bahamas B. Interior = skeletal l.s., peloid sands & mud C. Platform margins = shoals of ooid grainstone D. Talus slope & slump & gravity flows E. Platform evolution: 1. Develop on horst 2. graben = deeper water
Isolated Platform
http://www.geologie.uni-stuttgart.de/online_kurse/virtfoss/CPR%20ordner/Figuren/Bilder%20Lec3/Fig.3-3.gif
X. Ramps
A. gentle slope (<1o) B. shallow nearshore deposition
1. tidal flat/lagoonal facies 2. shoal water complex of bank or ooid-peloid sand shoals
strata.geol.sc.edu/.../Sea_Level_Changes.htm
http://www.ags.gov.ab.ca/publications/wcsb_atlas/A_CH14/FG14_18.html
A. Rimmed shelf w/inshore basin B. Pass landward into coastal siliciclastics C. Seaward-basin pass to rim of skeletal or ooids D. Basin depth few 10's of m
1. below fairweather wave base 2. seds = shale, quartz sand 3. If below wave base, euxinic, dysaerobic l.s. & shale
a back ramp with microbial intertidal flatsthat pass landward into an evaporitic basin and skeletalpelleted sands to pelleted lime muds in protected lagoons a shallow ramp with high energy skeletal/oolitic sand shoals, beach barrier systems and coral reefs a deep ramp that is transitional from aggregate/skeletal sands dominated by molluscs and foraminifera to skeletal muddy sands dominated by mollusc debris a gradual transition into bivalve rich marls of deeper water
Sedimentary processes
Any living reef is a balance between 4 factors: upward growth of in-place calcareous elements continual destruction by a host of raspers, borers and grazers prolific sediment production by rapidly growing, short-lived, attached calcareous benthics concurrent inorganic or organically induced cementation. The modern reef growth window Continuing the carbonate nomenclature of Dunham to reefs
Facies distribution
reef front facies lies between about 10-100 m diverse reef builders varying in shape from hemispherical to branching to columnar to dendroid to sheet-like (dependent on species that exist at time of reef formation) accessory organisms and niche dwellers common below 40 m light and wave intensity is low and corals are platy
fore reef facies gravel and sand composed of skeletal debris, reef limestone blocks, reef builder skeletons grade basinwards into muds
reef crest facies down to max 15 m receives most wind and wave energy organisms range from encrusting to short and stubby branching types depending on wave and wind energy
reef flat facies in areas of intense waves - pavement of cemented, large skeletal clasts with scattered rubble and coraline algal nodules moderate wave energy - shoals of well washed lime sand most material swept in from reef crest
back reef facies where much of the mud formed on the reef comes out of suspension prolific growth of sand and mudproducing bottom fauna (eg algae) corals are stubby and dendroid or large and globular
Carbonate Slopes extend from the shallow water environment of the reef and fore reef down into deep water of ocean basins processes are similar to those of terrigenous slopes and deep water tend to be cut by a number of parallel gullies facies belts are parallel to the platform margin down slope carbonate deposition controlled by the carbonate compensation depth
Depositional slopes either smooth slopes that extend from shallow to deep water with the thickness of accumulated sediment decreasing seaward or bypass slopes where the upper slope is largely bypassed with sedimentation on the lower slope
Erosional slopes net removal of material due to a number of mechanisms including slumping and carbonate dissolution
Processes operating on the slope material settled out of suspension sediment gravity flows such as turbidites, slumping, debris flows and creep reworking by bottom currents laminated mudrocks to megabreccias that indicate large scale collapse of the platform margin
http://www.gly.fsu.edu/~salters/GLY10 00/11Seds_sedrocks/Slide35.jpg
USGS
Cambrian Paleogeography
I) Intro A. Most of N. America along paleoequator B. Deposition of carbonate & qtz sand, shale C. Early Cambrian sea encroachment D. L. Cambrian sea covered large area E. Much carbonate deposition F. E.g.. Sauk Sequence 1. erosion and weathering of xln basement 2. encroachment of marine water 3. deposition of clean sand 4. sandy deposition replace by carbonates i. algae flourished 5. sands pass westward into finer clastics & carbonates 6. E.g. Grand Canyon i. Cambrian Tapeats ss ii. passes to Bright Angle Shale iii. followed by Mauv L.S. iv. together form transgressive sequence
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/Ear_Camb.jpg
Rimmed Shelves shallow water shelves - grass covered sands and muds on their inner parts and skeletal sands and patch reefs on the outer parts deep water shelves - lagoons with water depths up to 30m, floored by mud; outer reefs and patch reefs surrounded by reef talus; skeletal sands in nearshore areas.