Deficiencies and Vulnerability Assessment of Buildings and Retrofit

DEFICIENCIES AND VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT OF BUILDINGS AND RETROFIT
WHAT IS SEISMIC VULNERABILITY?

Vulnerability is defined as:
The degree of loss to a given element at Risk (or set of elements) resulting from a given level of Hazard.
The Vulnerability of an element is defined as a ratio of the expected loss to the maximum possible loss on a scale from 0 to 1 or 0% to 100%.
Seismic Risk = (Seismic Hazard) x (Vulnerability) x (Value)
SO
Seismic Vulnerabilities may be associated with all built infrastructure, natural landscape, soil and human lives
EARTHQUAKE
is one natural disaster that effects all the elements identified above
DAMAGES BY EARTHQUAKES!
BHUJ EARTHQUAKE-2001
BHUJ EARTHQUAKE-2001
Aftermath
KASHMIR EARTHQUAKE-2005
Aftermath
The main road linking Islamabad and Muzaffarabad
A Fallen Road Side in Muzaffarabad
An Aerial View of Razed Houses in Muzaffarabad
We Shall Restrict Ourselves to Building Vulnerabilities Now
Buildings are made up of either man made/manufactured materials and/or

Natural Occurring Materials
Classified as:
Rural Buildings/Houses Urban Buildings/Houses
both could be:

Engineered Marginally Engineered Non-Engineered
MATERIAL USED:
Rural Buildings
Mostly MUD with thatched, tinned and/or asbestos sheet roofing Stone rubble masonry Soil stabilized blocks and sand cement blocks
Urban Buildings
Mostly Reinforced Concrete

Steel, in Industrial Buildings
All Material have inherent weakness leading to deterioration, some of them are: Brittleness
Non resistance to chemical attacks Prone to fire Do not have ability to perform in adverse loading conditions
Vulnerable to natural disasters
REINFORCED CONCRETE BUILDINGS

Versatile Material Most Researched Material Stood Test of Time Materials Readily Available
However
possess inherent weaknesses leading to deterioration and adding vulnerabilities if not handled properly
IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES
Stability
Serviceability
Lateral Stiffness Lateral Strength
Ductility
Drift Deformations
LOADS ON STRUCTURES AND ITS ELEMENTS & THEIR RESPONSE
Seismic forces on the elements of shear wall building system
Source: Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures, Pankaj Agarwal and Manish Shrikhande
Buckling under compression Source: Structures in Architecture, The Building of Buildings, Mario Salvadori and Robert Heller
Spandrel beam under torsion Source: Structures in Architecture, The Building of Buildings, Mario Salvadori and Robert Heller
Reinforced concrete in bending Source: Structures in Architecture, The Building of Buildings, Mario Salvadori and Robert Heller
Forces in ductile and elastic system Source: Concrete Structures in Earthquake Regions: Design and Analysis, Edmund Booth and Richard Fenwick
Load-deflection behaviour of a flexural member Source: Reinforced Concrete Design, R. Park and T. Pauly
Favourable and unfavourable arrangements of relative member strengths

Source: Concrete Structures in Earthquake Regions: Design and Analysis, Edmund Booth and Richard Fenwick
WIND LOAD
Source: Structures in Architecture, The Building of Buildings, Mario Salvadori and Robert Heller
Blade of grass survives, but the tree does not!

Source: Hand Book on Seismic Retrofit of Buildings, Central Public Works Department, Indian Building Congress, IIT, Madras
Earthquake Motions
Source: Structures in Architecture, The Building of Buildings, Mario Salvadori and Robert Heller
Elastic behaviour of a building (Murty, 2005) Source: Hand Book on Seismic Retrofit of Buildings, Central Public Works Department, Indian Building Congress, IIT, Madras
Conventional Structure Source: Earthquake Risk Reduction, David Dowrick
COMMON VULNERABILITIES & DEFICIENCIES
Schematic diagram illustrating local geology and soil features
Source: Earthquake Risk Reduction, David Dowrick
Source: Seismic Conceptual Design of Buildings Basic Principles for Engineers, Architects, Building Owners and Authorities, Hugo Bachmann
EFFECT OF STRUCTURAL IRREGULARITIES ON PERFORMANCE
REGULAR BUILDINGS
Configurations are almost symmetrical (in plan and elevation) about the axis and have uniform distribution of the lateral force-resisting structure such that it provides a continuous load path for both gravity and lateral loads.
IRREGULAR BUILDINGS
Buildings that lack symmetry and possess discontinuity in geometry, mass and/or load resisting elements is called irregular. These irregularities may cause interruption of force flow and stress concentration. Unsymmetrical arrangement of mass and stiffness of elements may cause a large torsional force (where the centre of mass does not coincide with the rigidities).
IRREGULARTIES CATEGORISED IN TWO TYPES

VERTICAL
referring to sudden change of
HORIZONTAL
refers to unsymmetric plan shapes (e.g. L, T, U, F) or discontinuities in
strength, stiffness, geometry and
mass
resulting
of over
in
forces the
irregular
and/or of height
the
horizontal
resisting
elements
and
distribution deformation building.
(diaphragms) such as cut-outs, large openings, re-entrant corners other abrupt changes resulting in
torsion, diaphragm deformation and

stress concentration.
VERTICAL IRREGULARITIES
Vertical Discontinuities in Load Path or Load Transfer Major contributor to structural damage during strong earthquakes Provision for adequate strength and toughness of individual elements
in the system should be made
All structural and non structural elements should be adequately tied to

the structural system, and the load path must be complete and sufficiently strong
The diaphragm must have adequate stiffness to transmit force
Vertical Discontinuities
Vertical elements such as columns or shear walls dont continue to foundation Causes excessive ductility demand in local members below Different from soft story
Karachi
Photo by Tom Tobin
Simple rules for elevation shapes of aseismic buildings. (Only with dynamic analysis and careful detailing should these rules be broken) Source: Earthquake Risk Reduction, David Dowrick
Simple rules for vertical frames in aseismic buildings Source: Earthquake Risk Reduction, David Dowrick
Related to Vertical Discontinuities

Likely Damage
Zone 4 Zone 3 Zone 2b Zones 2a and 1 Medium likelihood of gross loss of life High likelihood of major damage / closure Medium likelihood of gross loss of life High likelihood of major damage / closure Low likelihood of gross loss of life Medium likelihood of major damage / closure Low likelihood of major damage / closure
Geometry
Changes in plan dimensions of lateral force resisting system over height Can concentration damage cause of
Photo by Greg Deierlein
Different from soft story
Simple rules for plan layouts of aseismic buildings. (Only with dynamic analysis and careful detailing should these rules be broken) Source: Earthquake Risk Reduction, David Dowrick
Simple rules for widths of beams and columns in aseismic reinforced concrete moment-resisting frames
Source: Earthquake Risk Reduction, David Dowrick
Load Path
An earthquake excites the buildings mass, generating inertial forces
The lateral force resisting system takes these forces to the soil The route the forces take is called the load path Simplified load path for a moment-resisting frame
Beams & flooring Inertial forces Column

Foundation
Shears & moments
Soil
Earthquake shaking
EXAMPLES OF LOAD PATH IRREGULARITIES

Discontinuous columns, shear walls, creating a floating box type situation. bracing frames
Most critical region of damage is the connecting element (link between

discontinuous column to lower level column) and lower storey column. Primarily, therefore, is the strength of the beams that support the load of discontinuous frame.
Spectacular failure witnessed due to discontinuity of vertical elements of

the lateral load resisting systems e.g. infill walls that are present in upper floors are discontinued in the lower floor, caused several collapses in BHUJ-EARTHQUAKE.
Another example of discontinuous shear wall is the Olive View Hospital,

which nearly collapsed due to excessive deformation in the first two stories during 1972 San Fernando earthquake and was subsequently demolished.
Example of Incomplete Load Path
Delhi
Photo courtesy Melvyn Green
Damage Due to Incomplete Load Path

1999 Koaeli, Turkey Eq.
Photo courtesy US National Geophysical Data Center
Photo courtesy Patrick Murphy Corella
2004 Al-Hoceima , Morocco Eq.
Related to Load Path

Likely Damage Zone 4 Zone 3 Depending on load path deficiency, high to medium likelihood of gross loss of life Depending on load path deficiency, medium to low likelihood of gross loss of life; high to medium likelihood of major damage / closure Low likelihood of gross loss of life Depending on load path deficiency, medium to low likelihood of major damage / closure Low likelihood of major damage / closure
Zone 2b
Zones 2a and 1
Irregularity in strength and stiffness

A Weak
storey is defined as one in which the storeys lateral strength is less than 80% of that in the storey above.
A storey lateral strength is the total strength of all seismic

resisting elements sharing the storey shear for the direction under consideration i.e. the shear capacity of the column or the shear walls or the horizontal components of the axial capacity of the diagonal braces.
The deficiency that usually makes a storey weak is inadequate strength of the frame columns.
A Soft Storey is one in which the lateral stiffness in less than 70%
of that in the storey immediately above, or less then 80% of the combined stiffness of the three stories above. So;
Weak Storey is related to Strength and Soft Storey to Stiffness
The essential characteristics of a weak or soft storey consist of a discontinuity of strength or stiffness, which occurs at the second storey connections
This discontinuity is caused by lesser strength or increased flexibility deflections in the first storey of the structure, which in turn results in concentration of forces at the second storey connection, resulting in concentration of inelastic actions. Though it may have functional and/or technical advantage, due to reduced spectral acceleration and base shear due to increased natural period of vibration as in a base isolated structure, however, the price of this reduction is paid in the form of an increase in structural displacement and inter-storey drift, thus entailing a significant P- effect, threatening stability of structure. Failure of reinforced concrete buildings due to soft storey have remained the main reason in past earthquakes.
Mexico city 1985 EQ, soft first stories were major
contributor to 8% of serious failures
Number of cases of soft storey failure have also been reported in Algeria earthquake 1980, San Salvador earthquake 1986, North ridge earthquake 1994, Bhuj earthquake, 2001
It is recognized that this type of failure results from the combination
of several other unfavorable factors, such as, torsion, excusive

mass on upper floors, P- effects and lack of ductility in the bottom storey, leading to local stress concentration accompanied by large
plastic deformations. Soft Stories, therefore, deserve special

consideration in analysis and design, specially the columns of first storey have to be designed on the basis of adequate capacity
and/or ductility.
Some Examples of Soft Stories

Karachi India
Photo by Greg Deierlein Photo courtesy Brian Tucker, GHI
Soft Story Damage

Chi-Chi, 1999 Chi-Chi, Taiwan Eq.
Before
During
Deformation and damage concentrate here
Photo courtesy Japan-Hong Kong Recon. Team, U. of Kyoto
After
Soft Story Damage

1999 Koaeli, Turkey Eq. Ahmedabad, 2001 Bhuj, India Eq.
Photo courtesy Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center
Photo courtesy Indian Institute of Technology , Kanpur
Related to Soft Story

Likely Damage
Zone 4 Zone 3 Zone 2b Zones 2a and 1
High likelihood of gross loss of life High likelihood of gross loss of life Medium likelihood of gross loss of life High likelihood of major damage / closure Low likelihood of gross loss of life Medium likelihood of major damage / closure
Related to Weak Story

Likely Damage
Zone 4 Zone 3 Zone 2b Zones 2a and 1
High likelihood of gross loss of life High likelihood of gross loss of life Medium likelihood of gross loss of life High likelihood of major damage / closure Low likelihood of gross loss of life Medium likelihood of major damage / closure
Mass Irregularities
Mass irregularities are considered to exist where the effective mass of any storey is more than 200% of the effective mass of an adjacent storey. Effective mass is the real mass consisting of the dead weight of the floor plus the actual weight of partition and equipment. Excess mass can lead to: (a) Increase in lateral inertial forces (b) Irregular responses and complex dynamics. (c) Shifting of centre of gravity of lateral forces above the base if heavy masses in upper floor
Related to Mass Irregularities

Likely Damage
Zone 4 Zone 3 Zone 2b
Medium likelihood of gross loss of life High likelihood of major damage / closure Low likelihood of gross loss of life High likelihood of major damage / closure Low likelihood of gross loss of life Medium likelihood of major damage / closure Low likelihood of major damage / closure
Zones 2a and 1
Numerous examples of buildings reported to have collapsed due to

mass irregularities, in Bhuj e.g. Mansi complex is believed to have failed due to massive swimming pool at the upper floor.
Vertical Geometric Irregularity
A vertical setback is a geometric irregularity in a vertical plane. It is considered, when the horizontal dimension of the lateral force resisting system in any storey is more then 150% of that in an
adjacent storey.
A set back can also be visualized as a vertical re-entrant corner. general solution of the set back problem is the total seismic separation in plan, other wise lateral force resisting elements must be checked by using dynamic analysis.
The
Related to Vertical Geometric Irregularity

Likely Damage Zone 4 Medium likelihood of gross loss of life High likelihood of major damage / closure Medium likelihood of gross loss of life High likelihood of major damage / closure Low likelihood of gross loss of life Medium likelihood of major damage / closure
Zone 3
Zone 2b
Zones 2a and 1
Low likelihood of major damage / closure
Proximity of Adjacent Buildings

Pounding
damage is caused by hitting of two buildings constructed in close proximity with each other.
Several examples of building failure has been observed due to

pounding in Mexico earthquake 1985, Kobe earthquake 1995, Turkey earthquake 1992.
When
buildings are extended up to property line the problem
arises, however, not severe if both are of same height.
When floors of adjacent buildings are at different level, floor of

one act as ram battering the column of other building.
When one building is higher than other then the smaller become base
for the higher one, the lower building then receives an unexpected large lateral load while the higher building suffers from a major stiffness discontinuity at the level of the top of the lower building.
Pounding may also be the result of different dynamic characteristic of

adjacent buildings, the unexpected severity of the ground motion, non compliance with code provisions, particularly for lateral and torsional stiffness due to inadequate building configuration and structural framing system, and cumulative tilting due to foundation movement.
Damage
due to pounding can be minimized by drift control, building separation, and aligning floors in adjacent buildings.
Adjacent Buildings
Closely spaced structures with different vibration properties will pound against each other
Especially damaging if floors not aligned
Mexico City, 1985 Michoacan, Mexico Eq.
Related to Adjacent Buildings

Likely Damage Zone 4 Zone 3 High likelihood of gross loss of life Medium likelihood of gross loss of life High likelihood of major damage / closure Low likelihood of gross loss of life Medium likelihood of major damage / closure Low likelihood of major damage / closure
Zone 2b
Zones 2a and 1
PLAN CONFIGURATION PROBLEMS

Torsion Irregularities
Torsion irregularity shall be considered when floor diaphragms are rigid

in their own place in relation to the vertical structural elements that resist the lateral forces.
Torsion
irregularity is considered to exist when the maximum storey drift, computed with design eccentricity, at one end of the structure transverse to an axis is more then 1.2 times the average of the storey drifts at the two ends of the structure.
Torsion
Occurs when center of mass and center of rigidity are not close together
Center of rigidity Stiff wall
>0.2L
Center of mass
Stiff wall Center of rigidity
Center of mass
>0.2L L
Plan view
Plan view
Significant torsion will be taken as the condition where the distance

between storeys centre of rigidity and storeys centre of mass is
greater than 20% of the width of structure in either major plan

dimension.
Torsion
or excessive lateral deflection is generated in asymmetrical
buildings or eccentric and asymmetrical layout of the bracing system that may result in permanent set or even partial collapse.
Torsion is mostly effectively resisted at point farthest away from centre

of twist, such as at the corners and perimeters of the building.
Damage Due to Torsion

Dali, 1999 Chi-Chi, Taiwan Eq.
Photo courtesy Japan-Hong Kong Reconnaissance Team, U. of Kyoto
Related to Torsion
Likely Damage Zone 4 High likelihood of gross loss of life High likelihood of major damage / closure
Zone 3
Zone 2b Zones 2a and 1
Medium likelihood of gross loss of life High likelihood of major damage / closure
Low likelihood of gross loss of life Medium likelihood of major damage / closure Low likelihood of major damage / closure
Re-entrant Corners
The re-entrant, lack of continuity or inside corner is the common

characteristic of over all building configuration that in plan assume the shape of an I, T, H, + or combination of these shapes occurs due to lack of tensile capacity and force concentration.
Two types of problems may occur:

(a) They produce variations of rigidity and hence differential motions between different parts of the building, resulting in a local stress concentration at the notch of the re-entrant corner.
(b) They produce Torsion.
The magnitude of the induced forces will depend on mass of buildings, structural system, length of the wings, their aspect ratios, height of the wings and their height/depth ratio. To avoid this type of damage, either provide a separation joint between two wings of the buildings or tie the buildings together strongly in the area of stress concentration and locate resistance elements to increase the tensile capacity at re-entrant corner.
Non-Parallel Systems
In such a system load resisting elements are not parallel or

symmetric about the major orthogonal axis of the lateral-force resisting system.
Result in a high probability of torsional forces under a ground motion, as centre of mass and centre of resistance does not coincide.
Problems aggravates in triangular or wedge shaped buildings. The narrow portion of the building will tend to be more flexible than the wider ones.
Special care is needed in performing analysis and modeling for
computer programmes.
Diaphragm Discontinuity
Diaphragm is a horizontal resistance element that transfer force
between vertical resistance elements.
Diaphragm discontinuity, therefore, lead to abrupt variation in stiffness,

including those having cut-outs or open areas greater than 50% of the gross enclosed diaphragm area, or change in effective diaphragm stiffness of more than 50% from one storey to the next.
The
diaphragm acts as a horizontal beam, and its edges acts as
flanges, cuts in flanges seriously weakens the load carrying capacity.
SUMMING UP EFFECTS OF STRUTURAL

IRREGULARITIES
Multi-storied reinforced concrete buildings with vertical irregularities like
soft storey, mass irregularities; floating box construction should be designed on the basis of Dynamic Analysis and In- elastic Design.
The
proper effect of these irregularities can be accounted for by 3-D
mathematical modeling of the building and performing dynamic analysis, where ductility provisions have to be given more emphasis.
It
is always better to take extra care during structural planning and
eliminating these irregularities.
The
torsional effects in a building can be minimized by proper
location of vertical resisting system and mass distribution.
Shear walls should be employed for increasing stiffness where ever

necessary, and these should be intelligent and uniformly located and distributed in both principal directions.
Reference
to case studies and lesson learnt during past
earthquakes in areas having similar construction should always be looked and guidance taken from recommendation provided.
Captive Columns
Photo courtesy Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center
Occur when architectural elements brace a column over part of its height Deformation concentrated over a portion of height, rather than full height as designed Column fails in shear
1999 Koaeli, Turkey Eq.
Column
Cladding restrains column
Column
Column
Column
Column
Column
Damage Due to Captive Columns

2001 Arequipa, Peru Eq.
Photos courtesy Eduardo Fierro, EERI Reconnaissance Team Member
Related to Captive Columns

Likely Damage Zone 4 Zone 3 Zone 2b Zones 2a and 1 Medium likelihood of gross loss of life High likelihood of major damage / closure Medium likelihood of gross loss of life High likelihood of major damage / closure Low likelihood of gross loss of life Medium likelihood of major damage / closure Low likelihood of major damage / closure
Mezzanines Mezzanines often lack a lateral force-resisting system because they are suspended from the story above Unbraced mezzanines can collapse Mezzanines should be braced in both directions
Related to Mezzanines
Likely Damage Zone 4 Zone 3 Zone 2b Zones 2a and 1 Medium likelihood of gross loss of life High likelihood of major damage / closure Medium likelihood of gross loss of life High likelihood of major damage / closure Low likelihood of gross loss of life Medium likelihood of major damage / closure Low likelihood of major damage / closure
Deterioration of Concrete
Spalling or rust stains indicate that rebar is corroding
Deterioration in concrete and rebar can significantly reduce member strength
Related to Deterioration of Concrete

Likely Damage Zone 4 Zone 3 Medium likelihood of isolated loss of life High likelihood of major damage / closure Low likelihood of isolated loss of life Medium likelihood of major damage / closure
Zone 2b
Zones 2a and 1
Medium likelihood of major damage / closure

Deterioration of Masonry Units

Delhi
Deteriorated masonry weakens infill walls Walls may more readily fail
Photo courtesy Thomas Tobin
Related to Deterioration of Masonry Units

Likely Damage Zone 4 Zone 3 Zone 2b Zones 2a and 1 High likelihood of isolated loss of life High likelihood of major damage / closure High likelihood of isolated loss of life High likelihood of major damage / closure Medium likelihood of isolated loss of life Medium likelihood of major damage / closure Low likelihood of isolated loss of life Low likelihood of major damage / closure
Overall Quality
Poor quality of materials and/or shoddy construction Causes structure to be weaker than designed Can hasten deterioration
Photo by David Mar
Karachi
Related to Overall Quality

Likely Damage Zone 4 Zone 3 Medium likelihood of isolated loss of life High likelihood of major damage / closure Low likelihood of isolated loss of life Medium likelihood of major damage / closure
Zone 2b
Zones 2a and 1
Medium likelihood of major damage / closure

Proportions
Slender infill walls are prone to out-of-plane failure Thicker walls can resist out-of-plane forces with good confinement and arching action
Photo by David Mar
Related to Proportions
Likely Damage
Zone 4
Zone 3 Zone 2b
High likelihood of isolated loss of life High likelihood of major damage / closure
High likelihood of isolated loss of life High likelihood of major damage / closure Medium likelihood of isolated loss of life Medium likelihood of major damage / closure Low likelihood of isolated loss of life Low likelihood of major damage / closure
Zones 2a and 1
Seismic Evaluation of Existing Buildings
Flow diagram for the interpretation of Rapid Visual Screening scoring results Source: Adaptive Conceptual Frame work for Seismic Vulnerability Assessment of RC Buildings in Pakistan, Haroon M., Rafeeqi S.F.A., and Lodi S.H., COMPDYN 2009, Greece, June 2009)
Introduction
Defined 3-Tier Procedure as per ASCE 31-03 (now being modified for Pakistan)
Tier 1 - Screening Phase Checklist statements Potential deficiencies Tier 2 - Evaluation Phase Linear analysis Weak links Tier 3 - Detailed Evaluation Phase Nonlinear analysis Failure mechanism
Evaluation Process
Building Configurations: Problems and Solutions (Arnold and Elsesser, 1980) Architectural problems
Extreme height/depth ratio Structural problems Remedial measures
High overturning forces, large drift causing non-structural damage, foundation stability Built-up large diaphragm forces
Revise proportion or special structural system Subdivide building by seismic joints Subdivide building by seismic joints
Extreme plan area
Extreme length depth ratio
Built-up of large lateral forces in perimeter, large differences in resistance of two axes Experience greater variations in ground movement and soil conditions
Architectural problems
Structural problems
Remedial measures
Variation in perimeter strength-stiffness
Torsion caused by extreme variation in strength and stiffness
Add frames and disconnect walls, or use frames and lightweight walls Disconnect core, or use frame with non-structural core walls
False symmetry
Torsion caused by stiff asymmetric core
Re-entrant corners
Torsion, stress concentrations at the Separate walls, uniform notches box, centre box, architectural relief, diagonal reinforcement
Mass eccentricities
Structural problems
Remedial measures
Reprogram, or add resistance around mass to balance resistance and mass
Torsion, stress concentrations
Vertical setbacks reverse setbacks
and Stress concentration at notch, diffe- Special structural systems, rent periods for different parts of careful dynamic analysis building, high diaphragm forces to transfer at setback Causes abrupt changes of stiffness at point of discontinuity Add bracing, add columns, braced Redesign structural system to balance stiffness
Soft storey frame
Variation stiffness
in
column Causes abrupt changes of stiffness, much higher forces in stiffer columns
Discontinuous shear wall
Structural problems
Remedial measures
Results in discontinuities in load Primary concern over the path and stress concentrator, for strength of lower level columns most heavily loaded elements and connecting beams that support the load of discontinuous frame Column failure occurs before beam, short column must try and accommodate storey height displacement Add full walls to reduce column forces, or detach spandrels from columns, or use light weight curtain wall with frame
Weak column-strong beam
Modification structure
of
primary Most serious when masonry in- Detach in-fill, or use lightweight fill modifies structural concept, materials creation of short, stiff columns result in stress concentration
Structural problems
Remedial measures
Building separation (Pounding)
Possibility of pounding dependent on building period, height, drift, distance Incompatible deformation between walls and links
Ensure adequate separation, assuming opposite building vibrations Design adequate link
Coupled
Random Openings
maximum force transfer
Careful designing, adequate space for reinforcing design
Seismic Retrofit of Buildings
Distinction Between Terms:

RETROFIT REPAIR REHABILITATION
All three terms refer to modification carried out on a building, however, in different context.
REPAIR is loosely used to describe any intervention but in context of strengthening for seismic forces is used to refer minor interventions that are non-structural in nature.
REHABILITATION aims to regain the original strength or other structural requirements of a building.
RETROFIT aims to strengthen a building to satisfy the requirement of the current codes for seismic design i.e, strength, stiffness, ductility, stability and integrity.
( )
Target base shear versus roof displacement curves
RETROFIT VS REHABILITATION
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR RETROFIT

Because of the vast variety of existing structures, the development of general rules of real use is difficult and to a large extent each structure must be approached as a strengthening problem on its own merit. Some of the factors which need consideration are as follows: 1. The form of the structure and non-structure and the need for change, e.g. to create symmetry.
2. The material used in the existing construction.

3. The permissible visual and functional effect of the strengthening. 4. The desired further design life.
5. The desired seismic resistance.
6.
7. 8. 9.
The acceptable damage to the existing fabric in the design event.

The parts requiring strengthening and the problems of access thereto e.g., piles. The degree to which the ductile failure modes are required. The extent to which other components are to be upgraded as well as the strength.
10. Continuance of normal function during strengthening works 11. Whether Global or Local retrofit need. 12. Costs.
LEVEL OF RESISTANCE?
In California the level of resistance aimed for is based on the concept of an Acceptable Risk The objectives are:
1. to resist minor earthquake without damage 2. to resist moderate earthquakes without significant structural damage, but with some non-structural damage
3. to resist major or severe earthquakes without major failures of the structural frame work of the building or its components members and equipment and to maintain life safety
HOW MUCH RISK IS ACCEPTABLE

Depends of Level of Earthquake i.e., Seismic Hazard Level.
Seismic Hazard Levels
Deterministic
Probabilistic
Through zone factors and corresponding response spectra or ground motion time history.
Refers to probability of exceedance of an EQ Level in a specified time.
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Levels

SERVICEABILITY EARTHQUAKES (Approx Return Period 75 years) 50% probability of exceedance in 50 years. DESIGN BASIS EARTHQUAKES (Approx Return Period 500 years) 10% probability of exceedance in 50 years. MAXIMUM CONSIDERED EARTHQUAKE (Approx Return Period 2500 years) 2% probability of ecxeedance in 50 years.
Keep in mind that lower level of EQ are more likely to occur.
WHAT SHOULD BE RETROFITTED?

As resources will always be limited for retrofitting, a strategy of assigning priorities to what should be retrofitted first is likely to be adopted, e.g. : 1) Post-earthquake emergency facilities.
2) Life lines.
3) URM buildings. 4) Buildings which are cheap to retrofit. 5) Vulnerable buildings containing many people. 6) Cultural heritage property. 7) Historic building. 8) Public buildings 9) Other property
PRINCIPAL WEAKNESSESS IN BUILDING

For Pre-EQ-Code era buildings the following list of principal weaknesses in RC buildings has been given by Coburn and Spence (2002): a) Insufficient lateral load resistance as a result of designing for two small a lateral load. b) In adequate ductility caused by insufficient confinement of longitudinal reinforcement especially at beam-column or slabcolumn junction. c) A tendency to local over stressing due to complex and irregular geometry in plan and in elevation.
PRINCIPAL WEAKNESSESS IN BUILDING

d) Interaction between structure and non-structural walls resulting in unintended torsional forces and stress concentrations.
e) Soft ground floor due to lack of shear walls. f) High flexibility combined with insufficient spacing between buildings resulting in risk of neighbouring structures pounding each other during shaking.
g) Poor quality materials or work in the construction.
To Retrofit or Not?
Seismic load capacity versus risk of building collapse

Extent of Seismic Retrofit?

Depends on:
Importance of building Expected Remaining Life
Construction Quality
Level of Intervention
RETROFIT STRATEGY REFERS TO

Option of increasing
Lateral Strength Lateral Stiffness
Ductility
Integrity
Either at:
Local level i.e Member level Global level i.e Building as a whole
LATERAL STRENGTH
Base shear versus roof displacement curves to illustrate increase in lateral strength
LATERAL STIFFNESS
Base shear versus roof displacement curves to illustrate increase in lateral stiffness
DUCTILITY
Base shear versus roof displacement curves to illustrate difference in ductility

CONCEPT OF SEISMIC RETROFITS
Source: Standards for Seismic Evaluation of Existing Reinforced Concrete Buildings, 2001, Building Research Institute, The Japan Building Disaster Prevention Association
GOALS OF SEISMIC RETROFIT

1) To increase the lateral strength and stiffness of the building. 2) To increase the ductility in the behaviour of the building. This aims to avoid the brittle modes of failure. 3) To increase the integral action of the members and provide uninterrupted load path in a building. 4) To eliminate or reduce the effects of irregularities. 5) To enhance redundancy in the lateral load resisting system. This aims to eliminate the possibility of progressive collapse. 6) To ensure adequate stability against over turning and sliding. 7) To reduce damage in non-structural components for life-line and important buildings.
OBJECTIVE OF SEISMIC RETROFIT

The objective of seismic retrofit are quantitative
expression to achieve the goals of retrofit. The objectives need to be defined before designing for retrofit.
Of course for a non-engineered building, the objective

may not be quantifiable. The implicit objective is to provide adequate lateral strength by strategies that have been tested or proved to be effective in past earthquakes.
For an engineered building the objectives are based on

measurement of relevant quantities. The minimum objective should be to ensure that a retrofitted building does not collapse during a severe earthquake.
GLOBAL AND LOCAL RETROFIT METHODS

Retrofitting technique Global Adding shear wall Adding infill wall Adding bracing Adding wing wall/ buttresses Wall thickening Mass reduction Supplemental damping and base isolation Local Jacketing of beams Jacketing of columns Jacketing of beamcolumn joints Strengthening individual footing
GLOBAL AND LOCAL RETROFIT METHODS

CLASSIFICATION OF SEISMIC UPGRADING METHODS
(Contd.)
(Contd.)

GLOBAL AND LOCAL RETROFIT OF RURAL AND MASONRY BUILDINGS
GLOBAL RETROFIT OF RURAL AND MASONARY BUILDING

The walls in a masonry building should be provided with reinforced
concrete bands at plinth, sill, lintel and roof levels. Vertical steel bars should be provide at the edges of wall segments, ensuring that they are well anchored to the foundation and roof and that the whole structure should behave as one box.
Long walls are weak against the forces that act in a direction
perpendicular to their length. To prevent possible collapse, adequate cross walls or buttresses need to be provided, with proper bonding at the junctions.
The floor slabs and roof need to be properly connected to the

supporting walls for effective transfer of seismic forces.
The bandage strengthening techniques can be adopted to retrofit a

masonry building. For huts especially with heavy roof adequate braces should be provided.
GLOBAL RETROFIT OF RURAL AND MASONARY BUILDING

The openings for doors and windows should be rearranged as
staggered and should have themselves and the corners. sufficient distances between
The corners should be well connected and the bricks should be

placed staggered with reinforcement at the corner as well as connection with internal walls. This may be done by tying angle iron from outside.
Containment reinforcement should be provided with horizontal and

vertical reinforcement with cross bars after 3 or 4 blocks, inserted in the mortar.
At plinth level slab on grade may be provided to transmit horizontal

load to foundation.
Columns in verandah should be tied by beams at roof level and

S.O.G at plinth level.
Introduction of cross walls
Source: Hand Book on Seismic Retrofit of Buildings, Central Public Work Department, Indian Building Congress, IIT, Madras
Connection of a new wall with an existing wall

Strengthening of long walls by buttresses

Bracing without door opening
(b) Bracing with door opening
Introduction of braces in a hut

Bandage strengthening technique

Containment reinforcement for strengthening a masonry wall
Strengthening of wall
Anchoring of walls
Insertion of dowel bars at comers and Tjunctions (dimensions in mm)
Stitching of perpendicular walls
Strengthening of pillars by concrete jacketing
Seismic Vulnerability of Critical Buildings and Infrastructure, (06th-08th July 2011) Prof. Dr. S.F.A. Rafeeqi
Strengthening of wall with steel plates
Strengthening of wall with Internal reinforcement
RETROFIT OF REINGORCED CONCRETE BUILDINGS

FACTORS FOR CONSIDERATION
For proper transfer of loads, the foundations must be stronger than the columns and the columns must be stronger than the beams.
Columns at open ground floor needs particular attention. The beams should have adequate top and bottom reinforcement which should be well anchored at the beam-column joints. Shear walls should be well connected to the frames of the building. Ensure that the stair cares are well framed to avoid collapse during earthquakes. Additional floors not accounted for in design should be knocked off. Walls between columns creating short or captive columns should be removed.
GLOBAL RETROFIT STRATEGIES

Addition of additional in fill walls
Addition of shear walls or braces Removal of additional dead loads Reduction of irregularities Addition of wing walls Addition of buttress walls
Addition of a masonry infill wall

Addition of a shear wall (Jain, 2001)
Addition of steel braces

Addition of buttress walls
Addition of wing walls
Types of connection of braces to an RC frame

Table: Comparative evaluation of the global retrofit strategies Cont.
Table: Comparative evaluation of the global retrofit strategies
LOCAL RETROFIT STRATEGIES

Concrete Jacketing
Steel Jacketing FRP Sheet Wrapping External Unbonded Prestressing Tenders External Unbonded Ordinary Reinforcement Increasing thickness of walls
Concrete jacketing of a column

Concrete jacketing of beams

Steel jacketing of columns
Use of steel sheets in beams

Schemes for concrete jacketing of columns


Seismic Vulnerability of Critical Buildings and Infrastructure, (06th-08th July 2011) Prof. Dr. S.F.A. Rafeeqi

Strengthening a wall using concrete
Retro-fitting of external Unbonded Reinforcement for Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Beams in Flexural
Source: Flexural Behaviour of Reinforced Concrete Beams Strengthened by External Unbonded Reinforcement, S.F.A.Rafeeqi
Schematic illustration of strengthening technique with external unbonded ordinary reinforcement
Source: Reinforced Concrete Beams under Repair, S.F.A. Rafeeqi, Proceedings of SEC 2001 India.
External tendons in a box-girder bridge in France
Source:
External Pre-stressing a state of the art, Bruggeling, A.S.G, SP-120
STEEL PLATE BONDING

(Provision of anchor plates to ensure ductile flexural failure)
Source: Repair and Strengthening of Concrete with Adhesive Bonded Plates, R. Narayan Swamy and Robert Gaul, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1997.
FERROCEMENT LAMINATES
(Typical Attachments of Woven Wire Mesh Layers)
FRP WRAPS
(Wrapping of column using FRP composites)
FRP WRAPS
(Wrapping of beam-column joints (Mukherjee and Joshi, 2002))
Underpinning of reinforced concrete footing with piles

Table: Comparative evaluation of the local retrofit strategies, Cont.
Table: Comparative evaluation of the local retrofit strategies
RETROFIT EXAMPLE
STRUCTURAL RETROFITTING OF GGPS NAYASHER # 3

INTRODUCTION School buildings are vital for a society. They are places of learning. They also play a significant role in the relief operation in post-disaster situations. These buildings can be used as temporary shelters. Assessment of seismic vulnerability of school buildings is essential to ensure safety of children and teachers.
DESCRIPTION OF SCHOOL School consists of 4 classrooms. These have been divided into 3 blocks. Load resisting system consists of cavity walls of stone rubble masonry. These provide resistance against gravity loads. Roofing system consists is of timber trusses and corrugated metal sheeting. Construction inherently lacks resistance to lateral loads.
PLAN OF SCHOOL
VIEW OF SCHOOL A view of school is shown in figure below.
TYPICAL SECTION OF WALL Typical wall section of the construction in the area is shown in figure below.
STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
Structural system consists of load bearing walls to resist both gravity and lateral loads No connection between diaphragm and walls Diaphragm is flexible and is unable to transfer shear to the walls Good system for in-plane lateral forces but weak against out-ofplane lateral loads. Mortar provide weak planes as it is weak in tension. Failure of mortar joint could result in the toppling of wall. Its a problem of stability than strength.
EXISTING CONDITION
No major damage is apparent in the buildings.
Mortar cracks can be seen between stone blocks.

Cracks are also visible at the corners of adjacent walls and door and window openings. These cracks are typical of this type of construction. Retrofitting of school buildings can be carried out to increase lateral load resistance against out of plane forces.
RETROFITTING SCHEME
There are four objectives of the retrofitting scheme. To increase lateral load resistance of individual walls against out-ofplane forces locally. To form a closed box action between the four walls to enable them to act as monolithic walls to increase their resistance globally. To strength weak areas within the walls such as openings for doors and windows To tie individual and isolated members together such as stone masonry columns in the veranda.
RETROFITTING SCHEME
These objectives have been realised by four different schemes. Jacketing using MS steel strips, plates and angle iron. Shotcreting of surfaces. Provision of plinth beams to tie isolated columns. Provision of Slab-on-Grade to increase the global stiffness of the system.
ANALYTICAL MODELLING
A mathematical model of the school was developed. Finite Element Program SAP was employed. Individual blocks were modelled as solid brick elements.
Mortar was modelled using non-linear springs.

Non-linear properties of mortar were defined using existing constitutive models.
Geometric non-linearities were also taken into account.

Ground shakings were simulated using El-Centro ground accelerations
PROGRESS IN RETROFITING WORK
THANK YOU

Deficiencies and Vulnerability Assessment of Buildings and Retrofit

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DEFICIENCIES AND VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT OF BUILDINGS AND RETROFIT

WHAT IS SEISMIC VULNERABILITY?

Seismic Risk = (Seismic Hazard) x (Vulnerability) x (Value)

The main road linking Islamabad and Muzaffarabad

A Fallen Road Side in Muzaffarabad

An Aerial View of Razed Houses in Muzaffarabad

We Shall Restrict Ourselves to Building Vulnerabilities Now

Buildings are made up of either man made/manufactured materials and/or

both could be:

Mostly Reinforced Concrete

Vulnerable to natural disasters

REINFORCED CONCRETE BUILDINGS

LOADS ON STRUCTURES AND ITS ELEMENTS & THEIR RESPONSE

Seismic forces on the elements of shear wall building system

Favourable and unfavourable arrangements of relative member strengths

Blade of grass survives, but the tree does not!

Conventional Structure Source: Earthquake Risk Reduction, David Dowrick

COMMON VULNERABILITIES & DEFICIENCIES

Schematic diagram illustrating local geology and soil features

Source: Earthquake Risk Reduction, David Dowrick

EFFECT OF STRUCTURAL IRREGULARITIES ON PERFORMANCE

IRREGULARTIES CATEGORISED IN TWO TYPES

strength, stiffness, geometry and

distribution deformation building.

torsion, diaphragm deformation and

All structural and non structural elements should be adequately tied to

The diaphragm must have adequate stiffness to transmit force

Photo by Tom Tobin

Related to Vertical Discontinuities

Different from soft story

Source: Earthquake Risk Reduction, David Dowrick

Beams & flooring Inertial forces Column

Shears & moments

EXAMPLES OF LOAD PATH IRREGULARITIES

Most critical region of damage is the connecting element (link between

Spectacular failure witnessed due to discontinuity of vertical elements of

Another example of discontinuous shear wall is the Olive View Hospital,

Example of Incomplete Load Path

Damage Due to Incomplete Load Path

Photo courtesy US National Geophysical Data Center

Photo courtesy Patrick Murphy Corella

2004 Al-Hoceima , Morocco Eq.

Related to Load Path

Irregularity in strength and stiffness

A storey lateral strength is the total strength of all seismic

Weak Storey is related to Strength and Soft Storey to Stiffness

Mexico city 1985 EQ, soft first stories were major

contributor to 8% of serious failures

It is recognized that this type of failure results from the combination

of several other unfavorable factors, such as, torsion, excusive

plastic deformations. Soft Stories, therefore, deserve special

Some Examples of Soft Stories

Photo by Greg Deierlein Photo courtesy Brian Tucker, GHI

Soft Story Damage

Soft Story Damage

Photo courtesy Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center

Photo courtesy Indian Institute of Technology , Kanpur

Related to Soft Story

Zone 4 Zone 3 Zone 2b Zones 2a and 1

Related to Weak Story

Zone 4 Zone 3 Zone 2b Zones 2a and 1

Related to Mass Irregularities

Zone 4 Zone 3 Zone 2b

Numerous examples of buildings reported to have collapsed due to