1 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012

PV Cells Technologies
Characterization criterion:
Thickness:
Conventional thick cells (200 - 500 m)
Thin film (1 10 m). Tend to be less costly than conventional
(think) cells but they also tend to be less reliable and efficient.

Crystalline configuration:
Single crystal
Multicrystalline: cell formed by 1mm to 10cm single crystal areas.
Polycrystalline: cell formed by 1m to 1mm single crystal areas.
Microcrystalline: cell formed by areas of less than 1m across.
Amorphous: No single crystal areas.

p and n region materials:
Same material: homojunction (Si)
Different material: heterojunction (CdS and CuInSe
2
)

2 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012
BP SX170B Polycrystalline BP SX170B Monocrystalline
Mitsubishi PV-TD 190MF5
Multicrystalline
Uni-Solar Laminate PVL-136
Amorphous
Uni-Solar solar shingle
PV Modules at ENS
PV Cells Technologies
3 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012
PV Cells Technologies
Thick film fabrication techniques:
Czochraskis (CZ): for single-crystal silicon. Costly.
Float zone process (FZ): also for single-crystal silicon. Costly
Ribbon silicon
Cast silicon: for multicrystalline cells. Less costly.

Thin film
Can be used embedded in semitransparent windows.
Techniques:
Amorphous Silicon: can achieve higher efficiencies (in the order of 42%
thanks to the multijunction (different multiple layers) in which each layer absorb
photons with different energy.
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs): relatively high theoretical efficiency (29 %) which is
not significantly affected by temperature. Less sensitive to radiation. Gallium
makes this solution relatively expensive.
Gallium Indium Phosphide (GaInP): similar to GaAs.
Cadmium Telluride (CdTe): Issue: Cd is a health hazard (it is very toxic).
Copper Indium Diselenide (CIS or CuInSe2): relatively good efficiency)
Silicon Nitrade (N
4
Si
3
)
4 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012
The p-n junction diode
p-type substrate
n-type substrate
Bias voltage
Ideal diode
Real diode
0
1
d
qV
kT
d
I I e
| |
=
|
\ .
I
d
V
d
is the diode voltage
I
0
is the reverse saturation current caused by
thermally generated carriers
At 25 C:
0.026
0
1
d
V
d
I I e
| |
=
|
\ .
I
0
5 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012
PV Cells physics
I
SC
Reverse v-i
curve for the
diode
I
SC
V
OC
p-n junction is
equivalent to
a diode
Same curve
The bias source
(voltage source)
is replaced by a
current source
powered by the
photons
The current source
shifts the reversed
diode curve upwards
6 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012
PV Cell steady state characteristic
From Kirchoffs current law:




The open circuit voltage is

0
1
d
qV
kT
PV SC d SC
I I I I I e
| |
= =
|
\ .
0
( 0) ln 1
SC
OC PV
I kT
V V I
q I
| |
= = = +
|
\ .
PV PV
P I V =
Current
Power
Maximum power point
P
max
~ 0.7 V
oc
I
sc
7 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012
PV Cell steady state characteristic
Dependence on temperature and insolation:
8 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012
PV Cell steady state characteristic
More on the dependence on temperature and insolation:
9 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012
For a more realistic representation we can consider the following (equivalent
to a diodes model):
1) Effect current leakage







2) Effect of internal ohmic resistance
More complex steady-state models
I
SC
I
SC
( )
PV SC d
p
V
I I I
R
=
1
p
slope
R
=
S
V IR A =
R
p
R
S
V
d
+

V

-

+

-

0
1
d
qV
kT
PV SC
I I I e
| |
=
|
\ .
where
V
d
= V+IR
S
This is a transcendental
equation
10 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012
Both effects can be combined to obtain the more realistic (and complex)
steady state model:
PV more complex steady-state model
I
SC
R
p
R
S
V
d
V

-

-

0
1
d
qV
d kT
PV SC
p
V
I I I e
R
| |
=
|
\ .
where
V
d
= V+IR
S
This is a transcendental
equation
+

+

11 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012
Dynamic effects
Capacitive effect
As with any diode, there is an associated capacitance. However, this
capacitance is relatively small, so the effects on the output can often be
neglected. Therefore, PV modules can follow a rapidly changing load very well.

One undesirable effect of the capacitance is that it makes PV cells more
susceptible to indirect atmospheric discharges.
12 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012
Modules combination
PV cells are combined to form modules (panels). Modules may be combined
to form arrays.
More modules (or cells)
in series
More modules (or cells)
in parallel
When modules are connected in
parallel, the array voltage is that of the
module with the lowest voltage.
When several modules are connected
in series to achieve a higher array
voltage, the arrays current equals that of
the module delivering the lowest current.
13 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012
Shading
(n-1)V
module
-

+

+

-

(R
p
+R
s
)(n-1)I
module
A shadowed module
degrades the performance of
the entire array
One module with 50%
shadow
One module with 100%
shadow
Two modules with 100%
shadow
14 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012
Bypass diode for shadowing mitigation
Bypass diodes can mitigate the effects of shadows but they dont solve the
issue completely.
A better solution will be presented when discussing power electronics
interfaces.
No shade
Shaded with
bypass diode
Shaded without
bypass diode