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Load Effects X Factor of = Max. Internal Resistance safety (F.O.S) offered by Material of the Structure 3
However, this bending moment will only be produced if the material of the beam is strong enough to develop the required strength. This means that the answer of analysis may be true for bigger steel girder but may not be true for small wooden batten.
Factor of Safety
Factor of safety is required to bring the structure from the state of collapse to a usable state. It additionally covers the following aspects:
Factor of Safety
3. To cover uncertainties in material strength.
4. To cover, in part, poor workmanship. 5. To cover unexpected behavior in case the
theory is not fully developed.
Factor of Safety
8. Presence of residual stresses and stress
concentrations.
In case of allowable stress design, the factor of safety is applied in the form of safety factor (), while in case of LRFD, it is applied in the form of overload factors and the resistance factor ().
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In name only
Nominal Strength
Nominal strength (Rn) is defined as the strength of a structure or component to resist load effects determined by using formulas given in the specifications.
Types of Design
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD), Strength Design or Limit State Design Allowable Stress Design (ASD) Plastic Design
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Resistance factor () is lesser than or equal to 1.0 and is applied on material strength.
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The design equation is checked for each strength and serviceability limit states oneby-one. Limit state is defined as the limiting stage in the loading after which the structure cannot fulfill its intended function due to strength or serviceability considerations.
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Analysis of structures for loads is performed considering the structure to be within elastic range. However, inelastic behavior, ultimate failure modes and redistribution of forces after elastic range are considered in this method. This is more realistic design as compared with the old Allowable Stress Design.
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1. Load & Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Nominal strength (Rn) is defined as the
strength of the structure or its component determined by using formulas given in specifications.
Any particular load effect increased by the load factors is called the Required Strength (Ru).
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1. Load & Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) The nominal strength reduced by the
resistance factor (Rn) is called the Design Strength.
Ru ()Rn
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Advantages of Using LRFD LRFD is another tool for steel design, which
provides a flexibility of options to the designer in selecting the design methodology.
Economical in case dead loads are larger, compared with live loads. Every type of load may be given a different FOS depending upon its probability of overload, number of severe occurrences and changes in point of application.
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Behavior at collapse including ductility, warning before failure and strain hardening etc. This is not directly possible in ASD because here the structure is considered at service stage and not approaching close to collapse.
More safe structures result due to better awareness of behavior near collapse.
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Elastic behavior considered for load analysis and ultimate plastic behavior taken for material strengths are not compatible, however, percentage difference is less.
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2. Allowable Stress Design (ASD) F.O.S is taken on right side of the basic
design equation. This is denoted by .
Loads Effects =
Material Resistive Forces FOS
Allowable strength (Rn/) is defined as the nominal strength divided by the safety factor.
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2. Allowable Stress Design (ASD) Required ASD Strength (Ra) is the load
effect obtained from the service loads without
Ra Rn/
This method is now gradually replaced by LRFD for the structures, where behavior near collapse is fully understood.
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pre-stressed concrete.
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loads.
The failure mode is not directly predicted. With some overloading, the material stresses increases but do not go to collapse. (The failure mode cannot be observed).
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Results
cannot
be
compared
with
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structure.
Full reserve strength due to indeterminacy of the structure and inner elastic portion of the structure is utilized.
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Deflections
and
other
serviceability
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DESIGN STRENGTH
In LRFD, design strength of all elements is obtained as resistance factor multiplied with maximum stress that can be developed
The design strength is also called the load capacity, or sometimes only capacity, of a member.
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This bottle may have a fixed liquid retaining capacity of suppose 1 litre.
However, it may be empty at times meaning that the amount of liquid retained in it is zero litres but the capacity of the bottle still remains the same.
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DESIGN STRENGTH
Any amount of liquid may be poured in this bottle that is not exceeding 1 litre. Similarly, load capacity of a member exists with a fixed value. The applied load may have a different value
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DESIGN OF STRUCTURES
Knowing the expected loads and span lengths of the members in the basic design equation, finding the required material properties and cross-sectional dimensions is called Design of Structures. In steel structures, the design mainly consists of a selection out of already available sections in the market.
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DESIGN OF STRUCTURES
Structural Design may be defined as a mixture of art and science, combining the experience and intuitive feeling for the behavior of the structure with a sound knowledge of the principles of statics, dynamics, mechanics of materials, and structural analysis, to produce a safe economical structure which will serve its intended purpose.
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The structural designer must learn to arrange and proportion the parts of his structures so that they can be practically erected and will have sufficient strength and reasonable economy.
These important items, called safety, cost and practicability are discussed next:
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The
designer
must site,
have labor
information
concerning
materials
the
to
transportation
of
the
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conditions,
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The structural framework design is the selection of the arrangement and sizes of structural elements so that service loads may be safely carried.
The general layout of the structures. Studies of the possible structural forms that can be used. Consideration of loading conditions. Analysis of stresses and deflections, etc. Design of parts.
The above design procedure for a whole structure requires iterations and the main steps are listed below:
The important sub-steps in the design of parts (step 7 above) are shown in the form of a flow chart in Fig 1.1
Objectives of the design must always be kept in mind while using this flow chart. The selection of trial section in step 2
Select trial section based on assumed stresses/ effectiveness of cross-sectional alternatively, selection tables may be used Apply all stability checks
Perform strength checks Perform serviceability checks Accept section if all checks are satisfied, other-wise revise
Limit State
Limit state is defined as the stage in the loading after which the structure cannot fulfills its intended function due to strength or serviceability considerations.
The term limit state is preferred compared with failure because in most cases of limit states, the actual failure or collapse does not occur.
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Limit State
Limit states are generally divided into two categories, strength and serviceability. Strength or safety limit states means conditions of loading corresponding to maximum ductile flexural strength (i.e., plastic strength), ultimate ductile shear strength, buckling, fatigue, fracture, overturning and sliding, etc.
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Limit State
Serviceability limit states are those concerned with occupancy of the building, such as the deflection, vibration, permanent deformation and cracking.
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Limit State
The structure should not cross any strength or serviceability limit for a perfect design. All the applicable limits are to be checked by using the available procedures.
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End of File
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