Research Problems - Analysis

Research problem
The research problem typically takes the form of a concise question regarding the relationship between two or more variables. Examples of research problems include the following: (1) Is the onset of depression among elderly males related to the development of physical limitations? (2) Will a high-fiber, low-fat diet be effective in reducing cholesterol levels among middle-aged females? (3) Can a memory enhancement class improve the memory functioning of patients with progressive dementia?

A vague research question often results in methodological confusion, because the research question does not clearly indicate what or who is being studied. The following are some examples of vague and nonspecific research questions: (1) What effect does weather have on memory? (2) Does exercise improve physical and mental health? (3) Does taking street drugs result in criminal behavior? As you can see, each of these questions is rather vague, and it is impossible to determine exactly what is being studied. For example, in the first question, what type of weather is being studied, and memory for what? In the second question, is the researcher studying all types of exercise, and the effects of exercise on the physical and mental health of all people or a specific subgroup of people? Finally, in the third question, which street drugs are being studied, and what specific types of criminal behavior?

Operational definition
An effective way to avoid confusion in formulating research questions is by using operational definitions. Through the use of operational definitions, researchers can specifically and clearly identify what (or who) is being studied. The benefit of using operational definitions is that they help to ensure that everyone is talking about the same phenomenon. Among other things, this will greatly assist future researchers who attempt to replicate a given studys results.

Example

Lets say that a researcher is interested in studying the effects of large class sizes on the academic performance of gifted children in high population schools. The research question may be phrased in the following manner: What effects do large class sizes have on the academic performance of gifted children in high-population schools? This may seem to be a fairly straightforward research question, but upon closer examination, it should become evident that there are several important terms and concepts that need to be defined. For example, what constitutes a large class; what does academic performance refer to; which kids are considered gifted; and what is meant by high-population schools? To reduce confusion, the terms and concepts included in the research question need to be clarified through the use of operational definitions. For example, large classes may be defined as classes with 30 or more students; academic performance may be limited to scores received on standardized achievement tests; gifted children may include only those children who are in advanced classes; and high-population schools may be defined as schools with more than 1,000 students. Without operationally defining these key terms and concepts, it would be difficult to determine what exactly is being studied. Further, the specificity of the operational definitions will allow future researchers to replicate the research study.

Criteria for Research Problems

Good research problems must meet three criteria (Kerlinger, 1973). First, the research problem should describe the relationship between two or more variables. Second, the research problem should take the form of a question. Third, the research problem must be capable of being tested empirically (i.e., with data derived from direct observation and experimentation).

ARTICULATING HYPOTHESES
another step in the planning phase of a research study that can be somewhat intimidating for inexperienced researchers. Articulating hypotheses is truly one of the most important steps in the research planning process, because poorly articulated hypotheses can ruin what may have been an otherwise good study.

 hypotheses attempt to explain, predict, and explore the phenomenon of interest hypotheses can be thought of as the researchers educated guess about how the study will turn out. hypotheses articulated in a particular study should logically stem from the research problem being investigated. all hypotheses must be falsifiable. That is, hypotheses must be capable of being refuted based on the results of the study (Christensen, 2001).

 if a researchers hypothesis cannot be refuted, then the researcher is not conducting a scientific investigation. a hypothesis must make a prediction (usually about the relationship between two or more variables). The predictions embodied in hypotheses are subsequently tested empirically by gathering and analyzing data, and the hypotheses can then be either supported or refuted.

Null Hypotheses and Alternate Hypotheses

In research studies involving two groups of participants (e.g., experimental group vs. control group), the null hypothesis always predicts that there will be no differences between the groups being studied (Kazdin, 1992). the null hypothesis predicts that there will be no relationship between the variables being studied. By contrast, the alternate hypothesis always predicts that there will be a difference between the groups being studied (or a relationship between the variables being studied).

Example
In a research study investigating the effects of a newly developed medication on blood pressure levels, the null hypothesis would predict that there will be no difference in terms of blood pressure levels between the group that receives the medication (i.e., the experimental group) and the group that does not receive the medication (i.e., the control group). By contrast, the alternate hypothesis would predict that there will be a difference between the two groups with respect to blood pressure levels. So, for example, the alternate hypothesis may predict that the group that receives the new medication will experience a greater reduction in blood pressure levels than the group that does not receive the new medication.

Hypothesis
An IF/THEN statement or relationship between variables

IF (This) THEN (that)

Example: IF society has high levels of anomie, THEN suicide rates will increase.

 The number of null and alternate hypotheses included in a particular research study depends on the scope and complexity of the study and the specific questions being asked by the researcher.

 In scientific research, it is the null hypothesis that is tested, and then the null hypothesis is either confirmed or refuted (sometimes phrased as rejected or not rejected). if the null hypothesis is rejected, the researcher can reasonably conclude that there is a difference between the groups being studied (or a relationship between the variables being studied).

 Rejecting the null hypothesis allows a researcher to not reject the alternate hypothesis, and not rejecting a hypothesis is the most we can do in scientific research. To be clear, we can never accept a hypothesis; we can only fail to reject a hypothesis . Accordingly, researchers typically seek to reject the null hypothesis, which empirically demonstrates that the groups being studied differ on the variables being examined in the study.

Directional Hypotheses and Nondirectional Hypotheses

A reliable way to tell the difference between directional and nondirectional hypotheses is to look at the wording of the hypotheses. If the hypothesis simply predicts that there will be a difference between the two groups, then it is a nondirectional hypothesis. It is nondirectional because it predicts that there will be a difference but does not specify how the groups will differ. If, however, the hypothesis uses so-called comparison terms, such as greater,less,better, or worse, then it is a directional hypothesis. It is directional because it predicts that there will be a difference between the two groups and it specifies how the two groups will differ

Variables
A variable is anything that can take on different values. For example, height, weight, age, race, attitude, and IQ are variables because there are different heights, weights, ages, races, attitudes, and IQs. By contrast, if something cannot vary, or take on different values, then it is referred to as a constant.

Independent Variables vs. Dependent Variables

The independent variable is the factor that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher. In most studies, researchers are interested in examining the effects of the independent variable. In its simplest form, the independent variable has two levels: present or absent. group in which the independent variable is present (i.e., that is exposed to the psychotherapy) is referred to as the experimental group, whereas the group in which the independent variable is not present (i.e., that is not exposed to the psychotherapy) is referred to as the control group Levels of IV - absent, low, medium, and high get complicated fairly quickly when researchers use multiple independent variables with multiple levels.

Dependent variable
The dependent variable is a measure of the effect of the independent variable.
For example, a researcher may be interested in examining the effects of a new medication on symptoms of depression among college students. In this example, prior to administering any medication, the researcher would most likely administer a valid and reliable measure of depression such as the Beck Depression Inventory to a group of study participants. The Beck Depression Inventory is a well-accepted self-report inventory of symptoms of depression. Administering a measure of depression to the study participants prior to administering any medication allows the researcher to obtain what is called a baseline measure of depression, which simply means a measurement of the levels of depression that are present prior to the administration of any intervention (e.g., psychotherapy, medication). The researcher then randomly assigns the study participants to two groups, an experimental group that receives the new medication and a control group that does not receive the new medication

 if the scores on the Beck Depression Inventory decrease (which indicates lower levels of depression) for the participants in the experimental group, but not for the participants in the control group, then the researcher can reasonably conclude that the medication was effective in reducing symptoms of depression.

 In this example, the new medication is the independent variable because it is under the researchers control and the researcher is interested in measuring its effect. The Beck Depression Inventory score is the dependent variable because it is a measure of the effect of the independent variable.

 If you get confused, think of the independent variable as the cause and the dependent variable as the effect. To assist you in this process, it may be helpful if you practice stating your research question in the following manner: What are the effects of __________ on __________? The first blank is the independent variable and the second blank is the dependent variable. For example, we may ask the following research question: What are the effects of exercise on levels of body fat? In this example, exercise is the independent variable and levels of body fat is the dependent variable

 The independent variable is called independent because it is independent of the outcome being measured. More specifically, the independent variable is what causes or influences the outcome. The dependent variable is called dependent because it is influenced by the independent variable.

Categorical Variables vs. Continuous Variables

Categorical variables are variables that can take on specific values only within a defined range of values. For example, gender is a categorical variable because you can either be male or female. There is no middle ground when it comes to gender; you can either be male or female; you must be one, and you cannot be both. Race, marital status, and hair color are other common examples of categorical variables. Although this may sound obvious, it is often helpful to think of categorical variables as consisting of discrete, mutually exclusive categories, such as male/female, White/Black, single/married/divorced, and blonde/brunette/redhead.

continuous variables
In contrast with categorical variables, continuous variables are variables that can theoretically take on any value along a continuum. For example, age is a continuous variable because, theoretically at least, someone can be any age. Income, weight,and height are other examples of continuous variables. As we will see, the type of data produced from using categorical variables differs from the type of data produced from using continuous variables.

 In some circumstances, researchers may decide to convert some continuous variables into categorical variables. For example, rather than using age as a continuous variable, a researcher may decide to make it a categorical variable by creating discrete categories of age, such as under age 40 or age 40 or older. The benefit of using continuous variables is that they can be measured with a higher degree of precision.

Quantitative Variables vs. Qualitative Variables

Qualitative variables are variables that vary in kind, while quantitative variables are those that vary in amount

 Rating something as attractive or not attractive, helpful or not helpful, or consistent or not consistent are examples of qualitative variables. In these examples, the variables are considered qualitative because they vary in kind (and not amount). For example, the thing being rated is either attractive or not attractive, but there is no indication of the level (or amount) of attractiveness. By contrast, reporting the number of times that something happened or the number of times that someone engaged in a particular behavior are examples of quantitative variables. These variables are considered quantitative because they provide information regarding the amount of something.

 It is important to keep in mind that a single variable may fit into several of the categories that we have discussed. For example, the variable height is both continuous (if measured along a continuum) and quantitative (because we are getting information regarding the amount of height). Along similar lines, the variable eye color is both categorical ( because there is a limited number of discrete categories of eye color) and qualitative (because eye color varies in kind, not amount).

Research design
Reseach desigg decisions happen to be in respect of: (i) What is the study about? (ii) Why is the study being made? (iii) Where will the study be carried out? (iv) What type of data is required? (v) Where can the required data be found? (vi) What periods of time will the study include? (vii) What will be the sample design? (viii) What techniques of data collection will be used? (ix) How will the data be analysed? (x) In what style will the report be prepared?

FEATURES OF A GOOD DESIGN

A good design is often characterised by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient, economical and so on. Generally, the design which minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the data collected and analysed is considered a good design. The design which gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the best design in many investigations

 A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the consideration of the following factors: (i) the means of obtaining information; (ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any; (iii) the objective of the problem to be studied; (iv) the nature of the problem to be studied; and (v) the availability of time and money for the research work.

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Dependent and independent variables 2. Control 3.Research hypothesis 4. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research (Research in which the independent variable is manipulated is termed experimental hypothesis-testing research and a research in which an independent variable is not manipulated is called nonexperimental hypothesis-testing research) 5.Experimental and control groups 6. Treatments : The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put are usually referred to as treatments. 7. Experiment: The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some research problem, is known as an experiment.

Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research

For instance, suppose a researcher wants to study whether intelligence affects reading ability for a group of students and for this purpose he randomly selects 50 students and tests their intelligence and reading ability by calculating the coefficient of correlation between the two sets of scores. This is an example of non-experimental hypothesis-testing research because herein the independent variable, intelligence, is not manipulated. But now suppose that our researcher randomly selects 50 students from a group of students who are to take a course in statistics and then divides them into two groups by randomly assigning 25 to Group A, the usual studies programme, and 25 to Group B, the special studies programme. At the end of the course, he administers a test to each group in order to judge the effectiveness of the training programme on the students performance-level. This is an example of experimental hypothesis-testing research because in this case the independent variable, viz., the type of training programme, is manipulated.

Sample design & Data collection

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN (a) Sample design must result in a truly representative sample. (b) Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error. (c) Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study. (d) Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way. (e) Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in general, for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.

Processing and analysis of data

Interpretations & report writing

Artifact and bias

we conduct research to systematically study specified variables of interest. Any variable that is not of interest, but that might influence the results, can be referred to as a potential confound, artifact, or source of bias. The primary purpose of research design is to eliminate these sources of bias so that more confidence can be placed in the results of the study. Identifying potential sources of artifact and bias is therefore an essential first step in ensuring the integrity of any conclusions drawn from the data obtained during a study. Once the threats are identified, appropriate steps can be taken to reduce their impact.

 Methods for Controlling Sources of Artifact and Bias Statistical controls Control and comparison groups Random selection Random assignment Experimental design

Experimenter Bias
Ironically, the researchers themselves are the first common source of artifact and bias (Kintz, Delprato, Mettee, Persons, & Shappe, 1965). Frequently called experimenter bias this source of artifact and bias refers to the potential for researchers themselves to inadvertently influence the behavior of research participants in a certain direction (Adair, 1973; Beins, 2004). In other words, a researcher who holds certain beliefs about the nature of his or her research and how the results will or should turn out may intentionally or unintentionally influence the outcome of the study in a way that favors his or her expected outcome

Controlling Experimenter Bias

Strategies for Minimizing Experimenter Effects Carefully control or standardize all experimental procedures. Provide training and education on the impact and control of experimenter effects to all of the researchers involved in the study. Minimize dual or multiple roles within the study. When multiple researcher roles are necessary, provide appropriate checks and balances and quality control procedures, whenever possible. Automate procedures, whenever possible. Conduct data collection audits and ensure accuracy of data entry. Consider using a statistical consultant to ensure impartiality of results and choice of appropriate statistical analyses. Limit the knowledge that the researcher or researchers have regarding the nature of the hypotheses being tested, the experimental manipulation, and which participants are either receiving or not receiving the experimental manipulation.

Participant Effects
Participant effects are a source of artifact and bias stemming from a variety of factors related to the unique motives, attitudes, and behaviors that participants bring to any research study

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN RESEARCH

The many revelations of human rights violations and atrocities in the name of scientific research have led to a heightened public awareness about the need for regulations to protect the rights of human research participants.

specific ethical codes and federal, local, and institutional regulations when planning and engaging in research. These regulations have helped to delineate the specific types of information that must be conveyed to potential research participants in an effort to ensure that consent to research is voluntary, knowing, and intelligent. Despite these many developments, there is still a need for further research in the area of ethical protections in research studies.

All the Best for your RESEARCH