Slicing Bagels: Plane Sections of

Real and Complex Tori

Asilomar - December 2004
Bruce Cohen
Lowell High School, SFUSD
bic@cgl.ucsf.edu
http://www.cgl.ucsf.edu/home/bic
David Sklar
San Francisco State University
dsklar46@yahoo.com
Part I - Slicing a Real Circular Torus
Equations for the torus in R
3

The Spiric Sections of Perseus

Ovals of Cassini and The Lemniscate of Bernoulli

Other Slices

The Villarceau Circles

A Characterization of the torus
Bibliography
Part II - Slicing a Complex Torus
and
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
( 1 )( 2 ) ( ) y x x x x g =
Elliptic curves and number theory
2 2
( 1) y x x c = + Some graphs of
Hints of toric sections
Two closures: Algebraic and Geometric
2 2
( 1) y x x = Algebraic closure, C
2
, R
4
, and the graph of
Geometric closure, Projective spaces

P
1
(R), P
2
(R), P
1
(C), and P
2
(C)
2 2 2 2 2
( 1), ( ), y x x y x x n = = The graphs of
Elliptic curves and number theory
2
( )( )
n n
y x x a x b = +
Roughly, an elliptic curve over a field F is the graph of an equation of the
form where p(x) is a cubic polynomial with three distinct roots
and coefficients in F. The fields of most interest are the rational numbers,
finite fields, the real numbers, and the complex numbers.
2
( ) y p x =
Within a year it was shown that Fermats last theorem would follow from a
widely believed conjecture in the arithmetic theory of elliptic curves.
In 1985, after mathematicians had been working on Fermats Last Theorem
for about 350 years, Gerhard Frey suggested that if we assumed Fermats
Last Theorem was false, the existence of an elliptic curve
where a, b and c are distinct integers such that with integer
exponent n > 2, might lead to a contradiction.
n n n
a b c + =
Less than 10 years later Andrew Wiles proved a form of the Taniyama
conjecture sufficient to prove Fermats Last Theorem.
Elliptic curves and number theory
The strategy of placing a centuries old number theory problem in the context
of the arithmetic theory of elliptic curves has led to the complete or partial
solution of at least three major problems in the last thirty years.
The Congruent Number Problem Tunnell 1983

The Gauss Class Number Problem Goldfeld 1976, Gross & Zagier 1986

Fermats Last Theorem Frey 1985, Ribet 1986, Wiles 1995, Taylor 1995
Although a significant discussion of the theory of elliptic curves and why
they are so nice is beyond the scope of this talk I would like to try to show
you that, when looked at in the right way, the graph of an elliptic curve is a
beautiful and familiar geometric object. Well do this by studying the graph
of the equation
2 2
( 1). y x x =
2 2
( 1) y x x =
2 2
( 1) 0.3 y x x = +
2 2
( 1) 1 y x x = +
2 2
( 1) 0.385 y x x = +
Graphs of
2 2
( 1) y x x c = + : Hints of Toric Sections
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
2 2
( 1) y x x =
If we close up the algebra to include the complex numbers and the geometry to
include points at infinity, we can argue that the graph of is a torus.
Geometric Closure: an Introduction to Projective Geometry
Part I Real Projective Geometry
One-Dimension - the Real Projective Line P
1
(R)
The real (affine) line R is the
ordinary real number line
The real projective line P
1
(R) is
the set
{ }
R
0
It is topologically equivalent to the open
interval (-1, 1) by the map (1 ) x x x +
0 1 1
and topologically equivalent to a punctured
circle by stereographic projection
0
It is topologically equivalent to a closed
interval with the endpoints identified
0
P P
0
and topologically equivalent to a circle
by stereographic projection


0
P

Geometric Closure: an Introduction to Projective Geometry

Part I Real Projective Geometry
Two-Dimensions - the Real Projective Plane P
2
(R)
The real (affine) plane R
2
is
the ordinary x, y -plane
It is topologically equivalent to a closed
disk with antipodal points on the
boundary circle identified.
x
y
2 2 2 2
( , ) ,
1 1
x y
x y
x y x y + + + +
It is topologically equivalent to
the open unit disk by the map
( )
x
y
x
y
The real projective plane P
2
(R) is the
set . It is R
2
together with a
line at infinity, . Every line in R
2

intersects , parallel lines meet at the
same point on , and nonparallel
lines intersect at distinct points.
Every line in P
2
(R) is a P
1
(R).
2
L

R
L

Two distinct lines intersect

at one and only one point.
A Projective View of the Conics
x
y
Ellipse
x
y
x
y
Parabola
x
y
x
y
Hyperbola
A Projective View of the Conics
Ellipse Parabola
Hyperbola
2 2
( 1) y x x =
2 2
( 1) 0.3 y x x = +
2 2
( 1) 1 y x x = +
2 2
( 1) 0.385 y x x = +
Graphs of
2 2
( 1) y x x c = + : Hints of Toric Sections
including point
topological view
at infinity
If we close up the algebra, by extending to the , and the geometry, complex numbers
2 2
by including points at infinity we can argue that the graph of ( 1) is a torus. y x x =
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
Graph of with x and y complex
Algebraic closure
2 2
( 1) y x x =
1 2 1 2
Let and x x ix y y iy = + = +
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
Then ( 1) becomes ( ) ( )[( ) 1] y x x y iy x ix x ix = + = + +
Equating real and imaginery parts we have
2 2 3 2 3 2
1 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 1 2
3 and 2 3 y y x x x x y y x x x x = = +
2 2 3 2 3 2
1 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2
( ) (2 ) ( 3 ) ( 3 ) y y i y y x x x x i x x x x + = + +
Expanding and collecting terms we have
It's not so easy to graph a 2-surface in 4-space, but we can look
at intersections of the graph with some convenient planes.
is a system of two equations in four real
2 2 3 2
1 2 1 1 1 2
3 y y x x x x =
unknowns whose graph is a 2-dimensional surface in real 4-dimensional space
3 2
1 2 2 2 1 2
2 3 y y x x x x = +
Graph of with x and y complex
Algebraic closure
2 2
( 1) y x x =
2 2 3 2
1 2 1 1 1 2
3 y y x x x x =
3 2
1 2 2 2 1 2
2 3 y y x x x x = +
1 2 1 2
Letting and , then solving for and in terms of and , x s x t y y s t = =
1 2 1 1 2 2
we would essentially have , , ( , ) and ( , ) x s x t y y s t y y s t = = = =
1 2 1 2
These are parametric equations for a surface in , , , space x x y y
1 2
for ( , ) and ( , ) which can be pieced together to get the whole graph. y s t y s t
The situation is a little more complicated in that the algebra leads to several solutions
Some comments on why the graph of the system
is a surface.
1 2 1 2
(a nice mapping of a 2-D , plane into 4-D , , , space.) s t x x y y
Graph of with x and y complex
Algebraic closure
2 2
( 1) y x x =
1
x
1
y
1
x
2
y
2 2
1 1 1
( 1) y x x =
2 1
for 0, 0 x y = =
2 2
2 1 1
( 1) y x x =
2 2 3 2
1 2 1 1 1 2
3 y y x x x x =
3 2
1 2 2 2 1 2
2 3 y y x x x x = +
2 2
for 0, 0 x y = =
1 1
(the , - plane) x y
2 2
( 1) becomes y x x =
1 2
(the , - plane) x y
2 2
( 1) becomes y x x =
2
1 1
( )[( ) 1] x x =
Graph of with x and y complex
2 2
( 1) y x x =
2 2 3
1 2 1 1
1 2
2 0
y y x x
y y
=

The system of equations becomes

2 2 2
Recall, the graph of ( 1) in is equivalent to the graph of the system y x x = C
2 2 3 2
1 2 1 1 1 2
3 2
1 2 2 2 1 2
3
2 3
y y x x x x
y y x x x x
=

= +

Now lets look at the intersection of

4
in . R
2
the graph with the 3-space 0. x =
1
x
2
y
1
y
2 1
so 0 or 0 y y = =
1 1 1 2
and the intersection (a curve) lies in only the , - plane or the , - plane. x y x y
1
x
1
y
1
x
2
y
2
for 0, y =
2 2
1 1 1
( 1) y x x =
1
for 0, y =
2 2
2 1 1
( 1) y x x =
Graph of with x and y complex
2 2
( 1) y x x =
1
x
1
y
2
y
1
x
1
y
1
x
2
y
2
1 1 1 2
The intersection of the graph with the 3-space 0 is a curve whose branches
lie only the , - plane or the , - plane so we can put together this picture.
x
x y x y
=
2 2 4
2
( 1) in intersecting the 3-space =0 y x x x = R
P

1 0 1 +
2
Topological view in projective C
2
(roughly with points at infinity) C
Geometric Closure: an Introduction to Projective Geometry
Part II Complex Projective Geometry
One-Dimension - the Complex Projective Line or Riemann Sphere P
1
(C)
The complex (affine) line C is the
ordinary complex plane where (x, y)
corresponds to the number z = x + iy.
x
y
It is topologically a punctured sphere
by stereographic projection
The complex projective line P
1
(C) is
the set the complex plane
with one number adjoined.
{ }
C

It is topologically a sphere by
stereographic projection with the
north pole corresponding to . It is
often called the Riemann Sphere.

(Note: 1-D over the complex numbers, but, 2-D over the real numbers)
Geometric Closure: an Introduction to Projective Geometry
Part II Complex Projective Geometry
Two-Dimensions - the Complex Projective Plane P
2
(C)
The complex (affine) plane C
2
or
better complex 2-space is a lot like
R
4
. A line in C
2
is the graph of an
equation of the form ,
where a, b and c are complex
constants and x and y are complex
variables. (Note: not every

plane in
R
4
corresponds to a complex line)
ax by c + =
(Note: 2-D over the complex numbers, but, 4-D over the real numbers)
Complex projective 2-space P
2
(C) is
the set . It is C
2
together with
a complex line at infinity, . Every
line in R
2
intersects , parallel lines
meet at the same point on , and
nonparallel lines intersect at
distinct points. Every line in P
2
(C) is a
P
1
(C), a Riemann sphere, including the
line at infinity. Basically P
2
(C) is C
2

closed up nicely by a Riemann Sphere
at infinity.
2
L

C
L

Two distinct lines intersect at one and

only one point.
Graph of with x and y complex
2 2
( 1) y x x =
1
x
1
y
2
y
1
x
1
y
1
x
2
y
2
1 1 1 2
The intersection of the graph with the 3-space 0 is a curve whose branches
lie only the , - plane or the , - plane so we can put together this picture.
x
x y x y
=
2 2 4
2
( 1) in intersecting the 3-space =0 y x x x = R
P

1 0 1 +
2
Topological view in projective C
2
(roughly with points at infinity) C
P

1 0 1 +
P

1 0 1 +
Graph of with x and y complex
2 2
( 1) y x x =
1
x
1
y
2
y
2 2 4
2
( 1) in intersecting the 3-space =0 y x x x = R
2
intersecting the 3-space = > 0 x c
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
The graph of ( 1 )( 2 )( 3 )( 4 )( 5 ) y x x x x x x =
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
( 1 )( 2 ) ( ) y x x x x g =
A Generalization: the Graph of
2
intersected with the 3-space 0 x =
1
x
1
y
2
y
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
( 1 )( 2 ) ( ) y x x x x g =
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
( 1 )( 2 )( 3 )( 4 )( 5 ) y x x x x x x =
A Generalization: the Graph of
A depiction of the toric graphs
of the elliptic curves
2 2 2
( ) y x x n =
by A. T. Fomenko
This drawing is the frontispiece
of Neal Koblitz's book
Introduction to Elliptic Curves
and Modular Forms
Bibliography
8. T. Needham, Visual Complex Analysis, Oxford University Press, Oxford 1997
1. E. Brieskorn & H. Knorrer, Plane Algebraic Curves, Birkhauser Verlag,
Basel, 1986
5. K. Kendig, Elementary Algebraic Geometry, Springer-Verlag, New York 1977
7. Z. A. Melzak, Companion to Concrete Mathematics, John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1973
9. J. Stillwell, Mathematics and Its History, Springer-Verlag, New York 1989
6. Z. A. Melzak, Invitation to Geometry, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1983
3. D. Hilbert & H. Cohn-Vossen, Geometry and the Imagination, Chelsea
Publishing Company, New York, 1952
4. N. Koblitz, Introduction to Elliptic Curves and Modular Forms,
Springer-Verlag, New York 1984
10. M. Villarceau, "Thorme sur le tore." Nouv. Ann. Math. 7, 345-347, 1848.
2. M. Berger, Geometry I and Geometry II, Springer-Verlag, New York 1987