PHYSIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR

In studying behavior, it is essential for us to know something about the physiological structures which enable us to respond to and interact with our environment; namely, our receptors,

connectors, and effectors.

Receptors(sense organs) helps us to be aware

in our environment

Effectors(muscles and glands) respond to the

environment

Connectors(nervous system) integrate the

functions of receptors and effectors.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

TWO INTERRELATED DIVISIONS:

1.CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM it is made up of the brain and the spinal cord.

2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM connects the brain and the spinal cord to everything else in the body such as the sense organs, muscles, and glands. The peripheral nervous system also consist of all ganglia(group of cell bodies) and nerve fibers outside of the brain and the spinal cord.

The entire nervous system is made up of structural units of nerves cells averaging around one hundred billion which is more than twenty times the number of people living on the earth.

THE NEURON
also known as a neurone or nerve cell) is an electrically excitable cell that processes and transmits information by electrical and chemical signaling.

The neuron has fiber appendages called AXONS AND DENDRITES.

AXONS are long, slim, and tubelike fibers which carry messages or impulses away from the cell toward other neurons. It is surrounded by fatty and protein material coverings called MYELIN SHEATH.

DENDRITES are short fibers branching out from the cells which receive impulses and carry them toward their own cellbodies.

3 KINDS OF NEURON S ACCORDING TO ITS FUNCTION:

SENSORY NEURONS MOTOR NEURONS CONNECTOR NEURONS

SENSORY NEURONS Collect impulses from sense organ and direct these impulses to the spinal cord or to the brain. MOTOR NEURONS Carry impulses from sense organs and direct tese impulss to the spinal cord or to the brain.

CONNECTOR NEURONS

It is distinguish in 3 kinds: Neurons which receive impulses from the spinal cord and carry them up to the brain

Neurons which transmit impulses from one area of the brain to another area on the same hemisphere.
Neurons which transmit impulses from one hemisphere of the brain to another.

NERVE IMPULSE
Messages are transmitted by the neurons in the form of NERVE IMPULSES. POLARIZATION IS THE STATE OF NEURON
WHEN RESTING.
PROCESS
After it has transmitted the impulse, the neuron is said to be in its ABSOLUTE REFRACTORY PERIOD. The time when it cannot be charged even by the strongest stimulus. After a few moments it will gradually undergo recovery and a stimulus stronger than usual can make react. This state is known as the PARTIAL REFRACTORY PHASE.

SYNAPSE
Nerve impulses pass through the nerve fibers with great speed. To reach its destination, a nerve impulse may have to pass through a number of nerve junctures known as SYNAPSES.
Two neural functions may occur at these synapses: a nerve impulse may be slowed down, inhibited, and not allowed to go any further. a nerve impulse entering a synaptic junction may activate many other connecting fibers.

SYNAPTIC FUNCTIONS ENABLE US TO RESPOND IN A VARIETY OF WAYS, INVOLVING MANY OR FEW BODY PARTS.

REFLEXES
The simplest synaptic arrangements are the REFLEXES. Reflexes are simple, inborn, automatic responses of some parts of the body. In such responses, messages are transmitted directly from sensory to motor neurons forming what is called a SENSORY-MOTOR arc which causes the person to react even before such messages reach the cerebral cortex.

NUEROTRANSMITTERS

These are chemical substances that connect the nervous system and behavior. They carry impulses across the synapse to the dendrite an in some cases to the cell body of a receiving neuron. They are important because they help in monitoring the vital functions of the brain and the body.

THERE ARE SOME FIFTY KNOWN CHEMICAL NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND THESE ARE THE MOST POPULAR:
ACETYLCHOLINE
IS INVOLVED IN CARRYING IMPULSES TO THE SKELETAL MUSCLES.SINCE IT HAS BEEN NOTED THAT Ach IS ASSOCIATED WITH MEMORY CAPABILITIES, THE DEFICIENCY IN THE PRODUCTION OF THIS CHEMICAL MAY RESULT TO LOSS OF MEMORY, CONFUSION AND DEGENERATIVE DISORDER.

GAMMA-AMINO BUTYRIC ACID(GABA)

IS CONSIDERED AS AN INHIBITORY TRANSMITTER TENDS TO CONTROL A VARIETY OF BEHAVIORS, RANGING FROM EATING TO AGGRESSION.

DOPAMINE (D.A.)
AFFECTS A WIDE VARIETY OF OUR PHYSICAL AND MENTAL AILMENTS.ITS DEFICIENCY CAN CAUSE PARKINSONS DISEASE.MEDICAL RESEARCHERS HAVE ALSO HYPOTHESIZED THAT SCHIZOPHRENIA AND OTHER FORMS OF MENTAL DISTURBANCES MAY BE ATTRIBUTTED TO THE PRESENCE OF UNUSSUALLY HIGH LEVELS OF DOPAMINE.

ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP)

HELPS IN ENLARGING THE CELLS OF THE HUMAN BODY ALSO ESSENTIAL IN THE FORMATION OF SYNAPSES VITAL TO MEMORY FUNCTIONS.

ENDORPHINS
HELP THE BRAIN TO CONTROL PAIN.

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

SERVES TO CONNECT THE SENSORY AND THE MOTOR FIBERS WITHIN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. IT IS THE INTEGRATING CENTER FOR ALL BEHAVIOR AND BODILY FUNCTIONS.

SPINAL CORD
The spinal cord is a large ropelike segment of nerve tissue extending down the vertebral column.

It serves as the connector mechanism for spinal reflexes and the connecting link between the peripheral system and the brain.

SPINAL NERVES

carries motor, sensory, and autonomic signals between the spinal cord and the body.
Division of spinal nerves into 2 roots:

DORSAL ROOT CARRIES SENSORY NERVE FIBERS

VENTRAL ROOT CARRIES MOTOR NERVE FIBERS

Cross-section of the spinal cord

WHITE MATTER( AXONS) GRAY MATTER(CELL BODIES)

THE BRAIN
3 MAJOR PARTS: 1.HINDBRAIN IT IS CLOSE TO THE SPINAL CORD WHICH IS COMPOSED OF MEDULA OBLONGATA SERVES AS THE CONNECTING LINK BETWEEN THE SPINAL CORD BRAIN PROPER. PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN SUCH AUTOMATIC ACTIVITIES AS HEARTBEAT,BREATHING, AND BLOOD CIRCULATION.

PONS
LIES IN THE BRAIN STEM JUST ABOVE THE MEDULLA OBLONGATA IS MADE UP LARGELY OF NERVE FIBERS THAT CONNECT HIGHER AND LOWER NERVOUS SYSTEM.

CEREBELLUM
LOCATED DIRECTLY ABOVE THE PONS. IT MAINTAIN POSTURE AND TO SMOOTH OUT WALKING,WRITING AND DANCING.

2.MIDBRAIN SERVES AS THE CONNECTING LINK BETWEEN THE HINDBRAIN AND THE FOREBRAIN.IT CONNECTS THE SENSORY AND THE MOTOR PATHWAYS BETWEEN THE LOWER AND UPPER PORTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. SPECIAL ROLE IN VISUAL AND AUDITORY ACTIVITIES.

3.FOREBRAIN IT IS COMPOSED OF 2 LARGE CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES, AND A NUMBER OF IMPORTANT STRUCTURES WITHIN THE CENTRAL REGIONS OF THE HEMISPHERES.

PARTS OF THE FOREBRAIN:

oTHALAMUS LOCATED JUST ABOVE THE MIDBRAIN.IT IS A LARGE GROUP OF NUCLEI WHICH SERVES AS A RELAY STATION FOR SENSORY IMPULSES TO THE APPROPRIATE AREAS OF THE BRAIN.
oHYPOTHALAMUS CONSISTING OF SMALL GROUP OF NUCLEI, PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES SUCH AS SEXUAL BEHAVIOR,TEMPERATURE REGULATION,SLEEPING, EATING,URINE VOLUME AND CONCENTRATION,ALSO BEHAVIORAL AND EMOTIONAL RESPOSES. o CEREBRUM REPRESENTS THE MOST IMPORTANT DEVELOPMENT OF BRAIN IN MAN.IT IS THE SEAT OF CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE HIGHER MENTAL PROCESS, SUCH AS LANGUAGE AND ABSTRACT THINKING.

THE CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES CONSIST OF AN OUTER GRAY CORTEX, COMPOSED PRIMARILY OF NEURON CELL BODIES AND DENDRITES AND AN INTERNAL WHITE CORE COMPOSED OF AXONS THAT CONNECT AREAS OF THE HEMISPHERES WITH EACH OTHER AND WITH OTHER PARTS OF THE BRAIN.
CONVOLUTIONS THE SERIES OF DEPRESSIONS AND RIDGES OF CEREBRAL CORTEX.

4 LOBES OF CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE: THESE LOBES HOLD SOME OF THE IMPORTANT AREAS OF THE BRAIN RESPOSIBLE FOR LOCALIZING PATICULAR SENSORY MOTOR AND ASSOCIATION FUNCTIONS

FRONTAL LOBE PARIETAL LOBE TEMPORAL LOBE OCCIPITAL LOBE

THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

THIS OTHER MAJOR DIVISION OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM BRANCHES OUT FROM THE SPINAL CORD AND THE BRAIN, AND REACHES THE EXTRIMITIES OF THE HUMAN BODY. ITS MAIN FUNCTION IS TO CONDUCT IMPULSES TO AND FROM THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.

2 MAJOR DIVISIONS: SOMATIC AUTONOMIC

SOMATIC SYSTEM
INCLUDES THE SENSORY SYSTEM AND THE MOTOR NERVES THAT ACTIVATE SKELETAL (VOLUNTARY)MUSCLES RESPONSIBLE FOR MOVEMENTS.

There are forty-three major pairs of nerves that compose the somatic system. These are the twelve pairs of cranial nerves and the thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves.

CRANIAL NERVES SERVE THE RECEPTORS AND EFFECTORS OF THE HEAD.THEY HAVE SENSORY NERVES SEEING,HEARING,SMELL AND TASTE AND MOTOR NERVES FOR MOVEMENT OF THE EYES,TOUNGE,JAW AND PARTS OF THE NECK. SPINAL NERVE SERVE THE CHEST, TRUNK, AND EXTREMITIES. THEY HAVE SENSORY NERVES THAT GIVE RISE TO SKIN SENSATION AND MOTOR NERVES INVOLVED IN THE MOVEMENT OF ARMS, LEGS, AND PORTIONS OF THE TRUNK.

THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

THE AUTONOMIC SYSTEM

IS ALSO CALLED THE VEGETATIVE NERVOUS SYSTEM, IT IS CONSERNED WITH THE ACTIVITIES OF THE BODY THAT MAKE US ALIVE- THE GLANDS, THE INTERNAL ORGANS, AND OTHER ORGANS THAT FUNCTION INVOLUNTARILY WITHOUT THE AWARENESS AND CONTROL OUR EMOTIONAL BEHAVIOR. TWO PARTS:

SYMPATHETIC PARASYMPHATETIC

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

ENDOCRINE AND DUCTLESS GLAND WORKING IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE NERVOUS SYSTEM TO CONTROL BODILY FUNCTION AND BEHAVIOR. HOMEOSTASIS
THE MAINTENANCE OF BIOCHEMICAL BALANCE IN THE BODY. HORMONES VARIOUS CHEMICAL REACTION WHICH IS DIRECTLY SECRETED BY THESE GLANDS INTO THE BLOOD STREAM.

PITUITARY GLAND
ALSO CALLED HYPOPHYSIS IS A SMALL GLAND SUSPENDED DIRECTLY UNDER THE OPTIC CHIASMA AT THE BASE OF THE BRAIN. IT IS CALLED THE MAJOR GLAND OF THE BODY BECAUSE IT SECRETES HORMONES THAT CONTROL THE ACTIVITIES OF THE OTHER GLANDS.

2 PARTS:

ANTERIOR LOBE
POSTERIOR LOBE

ANTERIOR LOBE
SECRETES SEVERAL IMPORTANT HORMONES WHICH HAVE TO DO WITH GROWTH, THE FORMATION OF MILK, AND THE FUNCTIONING OF OTHER ENDOCRINE GLANDS. POSTERIOR LOBE
SECRETE TWO IMPORTANT TYPES OF HORMONES: AN ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE CALLED VASOPRESSIN WHICH CONTROLS EXCRETION OF WATER THROUGH KIDNEYS AND OXYTOCIN WHICH STIMULATES THE BREAST TO PRODUCE MILK AND STIMULATES THE CONTRACTIONS OF THE UTERUS DURING LABOR.

MAJOR ENDOCTRINE GLANDS

THYROID GLAND
IS LOCATED AT THE BASE OF THE THROAT.IT IS A FLAT GLAND LIKE A BUTTERFLY AND SECRETES TWO KNOWN HORMONES: THYROXINE AND IDOTHYROXINE. DISORDERS OF THE THYROID GLAND MAY DUE TO OVERSECRETION OF THESE HORMONES WHICH LEADS TO HYPERTHYROIDISM, OR UNDERSECRETION WHICH LEADS TO HYPOTHYROIDISM.

HYPOTHYROIDISM there is augmented metabolism and, conquently, rapid physiological process like accelerated heartbeat. It may result to cretinism if occurs in childhood and myxedema if occurs in adulthood.

Cretin is characterized by arrested physical and mental development. Myxedema is characterized by slowing of motor activity, increase of weight,slowing of speech,yellowing of skin and thickening lips

ADRENAL GLANDS
LOCATED ON TOP OF EACH KIDNEY

TWO PARTS:
MEDULLASECRETES TWO HORMONES KNOWN ADRENALIN OR EPINEPHERINE AND NORADRENALIN WHICH SERVE TO GIVE US EXTRA ENERGY. ADRENAL CORTEXSECRETES A NUMBER OF HORMONES THAT CONTROL MANY BASIC CHEMICAL MECHANISM WITHIN THE BODY,INCLUDING METABOLISM OF CARBOHYDRATES AND FUNCTIONING OF REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS.

ISLETS OF LANGERHANS
PANCREAS WHICH CONTAINS THE ISLETS OF LANGERHANS IS LOCATED JUST POSTERIOR TO THE STOMACH AND ATTACHED BY A DUCT TO THE INTESTINAL TRACT.
IT PRODUCE THE HORMONES INSULIN AND GLUCAGON WHICH INCREASE THE PERMEABILITY OF CELLS TO SUGAR (GLUCOSE) IN THE BLOOD.

GONADS
TESTES the male sex glands. They secrete a hormone known as TESTOSTERONE which promotes male secondary sex characteristics that make the male look typically masculine
OVARIES the female sex glands they secrete ESTROGEN and PROGESTERONE. Estrogen is responsible for the appearance of the secondary sex characteristics which make a girl look typically feminine. Progesterone stimulate the thickening of the urine lining in preparation for pregnancy.

PARATHYROID GLANDS
SECRETES THE HORMONE PARATHRORMONE WHICH CONTROLS THE BALANCE OF VARIOUS MINERALS IN THE BLOOD STREAM, PARTICULARLY CALCUIM.
DEFICIENCY OF THIS HORMONE LEADS TO LOW CALCUIM CONTENT OF THE BLOOD RESULTING IN TETANY.IT IS CHARACTERIZED BY STIFFENING OF HANDS AND FINGERS, MUSCLE CRAMPS, AND IRRITABILITY.