Sensory receptors detect environmental changes and

trigger nerve impulses that travel on sensory pathways into the CNS for processing and interpretation. Sensory receptors fall into two major categories
Somatic senses Touch Pressure Temperature Pain Special Senses Taste Smell Hearing Equilibrium Vision

 Sensory receptors are diverse, but share certain

features. Sensory receptors fall into five categories

Chemoreceptors Pain receptors Thermoreceptors Mechanoreceptors Photoreceptors

 A sensation occurs when

the brain becomes aware of sensory impulses A perception occurs when the brain interprets these sensory impulses. The cerebral cortex causes the feeling to seem to come from the stimulated receptor, called projection.

 The brain must prioritize

the sensory input it receives. The ability to ignore unimportant stimuli is called sensory adaptation, and it may result from
receptors becoming

unresponsive (peripheral adaptation) Inhibition along the CNS pathways leading to the sensory regions of the cerebral cortex (central adaptation)

 The senses of touch and

pressure derive from three kinds of receptors

Free nerve endings Tactile (Meissners)

corpuscles Lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscles

 Free nerve endings are common in epithelial tissues,

and are responsible for the sensation of itching Tactile (Meissners) Corpuscles are abundant in the hairless portions of the skin. They respond to the motion of objects which barely touch the skin, recognizing those impulses as a light touch. Lamellated (Pacinian) Corpuscles are common in deeper dermal and subcutaneous tissues, muscle joints and ligaments. These respond to heavy pressure, and are responsible for the sensation of deep pressure.

 Temperature sensation

depends on one of two types of free nerve endings in the skin.

 Warm receptors are most

sensitive to temperatures above 25C (77F), and become unresponsive at temperatures above 45C (113F) Cold receptors are most sensitive at temperatures between 10C (50F) and 20C (68F).

 Temperatures above and

below the range of the thermoreceptors stimulate pain receptors.

Both types of

thermoreceptors adapt rapidly, so within about a minute, the sensation of warmth or cold begins to fade.

 Pain receptors are free

nerve endings which are distributed throughout the skin and internal tissues. Tissue damage stimulates pain receptors. Pain receptors adapt poorly, if at all.

 The way in which tissue

damage stimulates pain is likely due to a release of chemicals. For example, deficiency of oxygen (ischemia) in a tissue stimulates a pain sensation.

 As a rule, pain receptors

are only in viscera whose stimulation produces sensation. Pain receptors in organs respond differently to stimulation than those associated with certain tissues.

 For example, local

damage to the intestines does not illicit a pain response. However, when visceral tissues are subjected to more widespread stimulation, such as stretching or spasms, a pain sensation may follow.

 Visceral pain can

occasionally feel like its coming from a part of the body away from that being stimulated. This is known as referred pain. This is thought to arise from common nerve pathways that carry the sensory impulses.

 Nerve fibers which direct impulses away from pain

receptors are of two main types

Acute thin, myelinated nerve fibers, which conduct

impulses rapidly, and are associated with the sensation of sharp pain. Chronic are thin, unmyelinated nerve fibers which conduct impulses more slowly and produce a dull, aching sensation.

 Pain impulses that

originate from the head reach the brain through the cranial nerves.

 All other pain impulses

travel on the sensory fibers of the spinal nerves, and pass into the spinal cord by way of the dorsal roots of these spinal nerves.

 Within the spinal cord,

neurons process the pain in the grey matter of the dorsal horn, and the impulses travel to the brain
Most pain fibers terminate

in the reticular formation Others terminate in the thalamus, hypothalamus, and cortex

 The awareness of pain

occurs before the impulse hits the thalamus The cortex determines pain intensity, source, and mediates the emotional and motor response to pain.

 Grey matter within the

pons, medulla oblongata, and midbrain regulate the movement of pain impulses from the spinal cord. Impulses descend through the lateral funiculus to various levels of the spinal cord

 These impulses stimulate

the ends of nerve fibers to release biochemicals to block pain signals in the posterior horn of the spinal cord.

 The inhibiting

substances released include the neuropeptides

Enkephalins, which

suppress acute and chronic pain impulses Seratonin - which stimulates other neurons to release enkephalins.

 Enkephalins act in a manner similar to morphine.

In fact, they bind the same receptors as morphine

 Endorphins are another

group of neuropeptides with pain suppressingmorphine like actions. They are found in the pituitary gland and hypothalamus Both endorphins and enkephalins are released in response to extreme pain, and provide natural pain control

 Headaches are a

common type of pain Although the brain lacks pain receptors, tissues in the head such as the meninges and blood vessels, are richly innervated.

 The special senses are those whose sensory receptors

are within large, complex sensory organs in the head.

Smell ~ Olfactory Organ Taste ~ Taste Buds Hearing & Equilibrium ~ Ears Sight ~ Eyes

 Smell and taste receptors

are chemoreceptors, meaning that chemicals dissolved in liquids stimulate them. Smell and taste function closely, as we usually smell food at the same time that we taste it.

 The olfactory organs are

yellowish-brown masses of epithelium about the size of postage stamps that cover the upper parts of the nasal cavity, the superior nasal conchae, and a portion of the nasal septum.

 Olfactory receptor cells

are bipolar neurons surrounded by columnar epithelial cells. Hairlike cilia cover tiny knobs on the distal ends of these neurons dendrites.

 Chemicals called odorant

molecules stimulate different sets of olfactory receptor proteins, and the stimulated olfactory cells send a signal of a detected odor to the brain. Odorant molecules enter the nasal cavity as gasses, but they must partially dissolved in the mucus before the receptors can recognize them.

 The odorant molecules

act as neurotransmitters to induce an action potential along the neuron. There are several hundred types of olfactory receptor cells which can signal for many thousands of odors when they signal the brain in groups

 Stimulated olfactory

receptor cells send impulses to olfactory bulbs.

These structures lie on

either side of the crista galli of the ethmoid bone.

The impulses are analyzed

and sent to

The limbic system The temporal lobe The bases of the frontal

lobes The anterior hypothalamus

 Although olfactory cells

have only one type of receptor, the receptors can bind several different types of odorant molecules. The brain interprets this binding as a combinatorial olfactory code.

 The sense of smell adapts

rapidly, but adaptation to one scent will not diminish sensitivity to new odors.

 Taste buds are the special

organs of taste The 10,000 or so taste buds are located on the surface of the tongue, and are associated with tiny elevations called papillae. About 1000 taste buds are scattered on the roof of the mouth and the walls of the throat.

 Each taste bud includes

50 to 150 modified epithelial cells which function as taste cells (gustatory cells). Each taste cell is replaced every three days The taste bud also includes epithelial supporting cells.

 The structure is

spherical, with an opening, the taste pore, on its free surface. Tiny projections called taste hairs protrude from the outer ends of the taste cells and extend from the taste pore.

 Interwoven among the

taste cells and wrapped around them in a network of nerve fibers. Stimulation of a receptor cell triggers an impulse on a nearby nerve fiber.

 Before the chemicals can

be tasted, they must dissolve in the saliva surrounding the taste buds Food molecules bind to specific receptor proteins embedded in taste hairs on the taste cells.

 There are five types of

taste receptors
Sweet Sour Bitter

Salty
Umami responds to

certain amino acids and their chemical relatives

 A flavor results from a

combination of the primary sensations. Experiencing flavors involves

Taste Smell Feeling the texture and

temperature of the foods Capsaicin can stimulate heat receptors

 Sensory impulses from

taste receptor cells in the tongue travel on fibers of the facial, glossopharyngeal and vagus nerve to the medulla oblongata. From there, the impulses ascend to the thalamus and are directed to the gustatory cortex, which is located in the parietal lobe of the cerebrum.

 The organ of hearing, the

ear, has outer, middle, and inner parts. The ear also functions in the sense of balance

 The outer ear consists of

three parts
Auricle (pinnea) The

outer funnel like structure External acoustic meatus The s-shaped tube that leads inward for 2.5 cm Eardrum (tympanic membrane)

 The eardrum is the

semitransparent membrane covered by a thin layer of skin on the outer surface, and a mucous membrane on the inside.

 The tympanic membrane

has an oval margin, and is cone shaped, with the apex of the cone directed inward The attachment of one of the auditory bones maintains the eardrums cone shape.

 Sound waves enter the

external acoustic meatus, change the pressure on the eardrum, which responds by moving back and forth This movement reproduces the sound vibrations of the sound wave source

 The middle ear, or

tympanic cavity, is an air filled space in the temporal bone. It contains the three small bones known as the auditory ossicles.
Malleus Incus Stapes

 Tiny ligaments attach

them to the wall of the tympanic cavity, and they are covered by mucous membrane These bones act as a bridge between the eardrum and the inner ear.

 The malleus attaches to

the eardrum The malleus causes the incus to vibrate The incus passes the vibration to the stapes. Ligaments hold the stapes to an opening in the wall of the tympanic cavity called the oval window

 Vibration of the stapes at

the oval window moves a fluid within the inner ear, which stimulates the hearing receptors

 In addition to

transmitting vibrations, the auditory ossicles help to amplify the force of vibrations as they pass from the eardrum to the oval window.

 An auditory tube

(Eustachian tube) connects each middle ear with the throat. The tube conducts air between the tympanic cavity and the outside of the body by way of the nasopharynx

 The function of the

auditory tube is noticeable during rapid changes in altitude. When a person moves from high to low altitude, the pressure on the outside of the ear increases.

 The inner ear is a

complex system of communicating chambers and tubes called a labyrinth. Each ear has two parts to the labyrinth
Osseous labyrinth Membranous labyrinth

 The osseous labyrinth is

a bony canal in the temporal bone. The membranous labyrinth is a tube that lies within the osseous labyrinth and has a similar shape

 Between the osseous and

membranous labyrinth is a fluid called perilymph, which is secreted by cells in the walls of the bony canal. The membranous labyrinth contains another fluid called endolymph.

 Parts of the labyrinths

include
three semicircular

canals, which provide a sense of equilibrium The cochlea, which functions in hearing

 The cochlea has a bony

core and a thin bony shelf what winds around the core like the threads on a screw. The shelf divides the osseous labyrinth of the cochlea into upper and lower compartments

 The upper compartment,

called that scala vestibuli, leads from the oval window to the apex of the spiral The lower compartment, called the scala tympani, extends from the apex of the cochlea to a membrane covered opening in the wall of the inner ear, called the round window

 The portion of the

membranous labyrinth within the cochlea is called the cochlear duct. It lies between two bony compartments and ends as a closed sac at the apex of the cochlea.

 The cochlear duct is

separated from the scala vestibuli by a vestibular membrane (Reissners Membrane) and the scala tympani by a basilar membrane Sound waves travel from the oval window, along the scala vestibuli, through the vestibular membrane, and into the cochlear duct, where they move the basilar membrane

 The spiral organ, or

Organ of Corti, is the location of the hearing receptors

The receptors are called

hair cells, and they are located below a tectorial membrane, attached the bony shelf of the cochlea.

 The hair cells project into

the endolymph of the cochlear duct, and are arranged in a specific pattern throughout the cochlea.

 As sound vibration

passes through the inner ear, the hairs shear back and forth against the tectorial membrane. The resultant deformation stimulates the hair cells.

 Although hair cells are

epithelial, they act like neurons, in that activation induces a depolarization of the cells. Depolarization leads to an influx of calcium, which in turn, leads to the release of neurotransmitter.

 This then leads to an

impulse along the sensory nerve fibers. The impulse travels along the cochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve to the auditory cortex.

 A young person can detect sounds from 20 to 20,000

vibrations per second

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4nUkNvl8mQw

1)

2)
3) 4) 5)

Sound waves enter the external acoustic meatus Waves cause the eardrums to reproduce the vibrations Auditory ossicles amplify and transmit vibrations Stapes moves against the oval window, which transmits the vibrations to the perilymph Vibrations pass through the vestibular membrane and enter the endolymph of the cochlear duct

6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11)

Different frequencies stimulate different sets of receptor cells As the receptor cell depolarizes, its membrane becomes more permeable to calcium Calcium influx causes a release of neurotransmitter at the base of the receptor cell Neurotransmitter stimulates nearby sensory neurons Sensory impulses travel along the cochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve Auditory cortex of the temporal lobe interprets the impulses

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1JE8WduJKV4&fea

ture=related

 Hearing loss is

characterized based on what part of the hearing organ is damaged.

conductive hearing loss

sensorineural hearing

loss mixed hearing loss

 The sense of equilibrium

is really two senses

Static equilibrium

Sense the position of the head, maintaining stability while the body is still Dynamic equilibrium detect motion and aid in maintaining balance

 The organs of static

equilibrium are located within the vestibule, a bony chamber between the semicircular canals and the cochlea. The membranous labyrinth inside the vestibule consists of two expanded chambers
Utricle Saccule

 Each of these chambers has

a tiny structure called a macula. The macula have many hair cells, which serve as sensory receptors The hair cells project upwards into the otolithic membrane, which has grains of calcium carbonate (otoliths) embedded in it.

 The organs of dynamic

equilibrium are the three semicircular canals located in the labyrinth. They detect motion of the head and aid in balancing the head and body during sudden movement.

 Suspended in the

perilymph of the osseous portion of each semicircular canal is a membranous canal that ends in a swelling called an ampulla, which houses the sensory organs of the sensory canals. Each of these organs is called a crista ampullaris, which contains a number of sensory hair cells and supporting cells

 Rapid turns of the head

or body stimulate the hair cells of the crista ampullaris.

 At these times, The

semicircular canals move with the head or body, but the fluid inside the canals remains stationary. This bends the cupula in one or more of the canals in a direction opposite that of the movement.

 The hairs imbedded in

the cupula also move. The hair cells signal their associated nerve fibers, sending impulses to the brain.

 Parts of the cerebellum

are important in interpreting impulses from the semicircular canals. Analysis of the signals can allow the cerebellum to maintain balance.

 Certain

mechanoreceptors, known as proprioceptors, associated with joints in the neck inform the brain about the position of the body parts

 The eyes detect changes

in posture that result from body movements. These perceptions are so important that a person with damaged organs of equilibrium can maintain balance by keeping their eyes open and moving slowly.

 Motion sickness arises

from senses that dont make sense. For example, if you are reading in a car, the eyes signal that you are stationary while skin receptors and inner ear receptors detect movement.

 To prevent or lessen

motion sickness, focus on the horizon or an object in the distance ahead. Medications are available by pill or skin patch.
Ginger root may ease

nausea.

 Debris in the vesibular

region of the organ could also play a role in confusion about balance. Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo (BPPV) dizziness is generally thought to be due to debris which has collected within a part of the inner ear.

 The eye, with the

assistance of accessory organs, provides vision.

The accessory organs

include eyelids and lacrimal apparatus, and a set of extrinsic muscles.

 The eye, the lacrimal

gland, and associated extrinsic muscles are housed within the orbital cavity of the skull. Each orbit is lined with the periosteum of various bones Also contains fat, blood vessels, nerves and connective tissues

 Each eyelid contains four

layers
Skin Muscle Connective Tissue

Conjunctiva

 The skin, which is the

thinnest in the body, covers the lids outer surface, and fuses with its inner lining near the margin of the lid The eyelids are moved by the orbicularis oculi muscle to close, and the levator palpebrae superioris muscle to open the upper lid

 The conjunctiva are the

mucous membranes which line the inner surface of the eyelids and folds back, to cover the anterior surface of the eyeball, except for the cornea.

 The lacrimal apparatus

consists of the lacrimal gland, which secretes tears, and a series of ducts that carry tears into the nasal cavity. The gland secretes tears continuously.

 Two small tear ducts

collect tears.
Superior canaliculi Inferior canaliculi

They flow into the

lacrimal sac, and into the nasolacrimal duct, which empties into the nasal cavity.

 Tears moisten and

lubricate the surface of the eye and lining of the lids They also have an enzyme, lysozyme, that is an antibacterial agent.

 The extrinsic muscles

arise from the bones of the orbit, and insert by broad tendons on the eyes outer surface. Each muscle has a primary action, but eye movements are usually the result of more than one muscle.

 The Orbicularis oculi

closes the eye, and is innervated by the facial nerve The Levator palpebrae superioris opens the eye, and is innervated by the oculomotor nerve

 The Superior rectus

rotates the eye upward and toward the midline and is innervated by the oculomotor nerve The Inferior rectus rotates the eye downward and toward the midline and is innervated by the oculomotor nerve

 The Medial rectus rotates

the eye toward the midline and is innervated by the oculomotor nerve The Lateral rectus rotates the eye away from the midline and is innervated by the abducens nerve

 The Superior oblique

rotates the eye downward and away from the midline and is innervated by the trochlear nerve The Inferior oblique

 The eye is a hollow,

spherical structure about 2.5 cm in diameter It has three distinct layers

An outer fibrous layer A middle vascular layer An inner nervous layer

 The spaces within the eye

are filled with fluid that supports its wall and internal parts that help maintain its shape

 The anterior sixth of the

outer layer bulges forward as the transparent cornea, or window of the eye. This portion of the eye helps to focus light rays. It is composed largely of connective tissue with a thin surface layer of epithelium. It is transparent, because it contains few cells and no blood vessels.

 Along the circumference,

the cornea is continuous with the sclera, the white portion of the eye. The sclera makes up the posterior five-sixths of the outer layer It is opaque due to many large, disorganized collagenous and elastic fibers. The sclera protects the eye The optic nerve and certain blood vessels pierce the sclera.

 Worldwide, the most

common cause of blindness is loss of transparency of the cornea. A corneal transplant can treat the condition Because the corneal tissue lacks blood vessels, transplanted tissue is not usually rejected.

 The middle layer

includes
Choroid coat Ciliary body Iris

 The choroid coat is the

posterior five-sixths of the globe of the eye It is loosely joined to the sclera and is honeycombed with blood vessels, which nourish surrounding tissues The choroid coat also has many pigment inducing melanocytes, which absorb excess light.

 The ciliary body extends

from the choroid coat and forms an internal right around the front of the eye. Within the ciliary body are many radiating folds called ciliary processes There are also groups of muscles called ciliary muscles.

 Suspensory ligaments

extend inward from the ciliary processes and hold the transparent lens in position. The body of the lens lies directly behind the iris and pupil The lens is composed of differentiated epithelial cells called lens fibers.

 The ciliary muscles and

suspensory ligaments, along with the structure of the lens itself, enable the lens to adjust shape and focus, a phenomenon called accommodation.

 The iris is the thin

diaphragm composed of mostly connective tissue and smooth muscle fibers. From the outside, the iris is the colored portion of the eye. The iris lies between the cornea and the lens.

 The iris divides the

anterior cavity into an anterior chamber and the posterior chamber

 The epithelium on the

inner surface of the ciliary body secretes a watery fluid called aqueous humor into the posterior chamber The fluid circulates from this chamber through the pupil and into the anterior chamber

 The aqueous humor fills

the spaces between the cornea and lens It helps nourish these parts It also helps in maintaining the shape of the front of the eye.

 It leaves the anterior

chamber through veins and a special drainage canal, the sclera venous sinus (canal of Schlemm), located at the wall at the junction of the cornea and the sclera.

 An eye disorder called

glaucoma develops when the rate of aqueous humor formation exceeds the rate of its removal. The building pressure squeezes blood vessels that supply the receptor cells of the retina.

 The smooth muscle

fibers of the iris are organized into two groups

Circular Set

Radial Set

These muscles control

the size of the pupil, and so control the amount of light with enters the eye.

 The circular muscles act as a sphincter, so when the

muscles contract, the pupil gets smaller and less light enters. When the radial muscles contract and increase the pupils diameter.

 The inner layer of the eye

consists of the retina, which contains the visual receptor cells, known as photoreceptors. This nearly transparent sheet of tissue is continuous with the optic nerve in the back of the eye, and extends forward as the inner lining of the eyeball

 The retina is thin and

delicate, but its structure is quite complex. It has a number of distinct layers.

 In the central region of

the retina is a yellowish spot called the macula lutea. A depression at its center, called the fovea centralis, is the region of the retina that produces the sharpest vision.

 Just medial to the fovea

centralis is an area called the optic disc This is where the nerve fibers from the eye leave to join the optic nerve This region of the eye is a blind spot, as there are no receptor cells.

 The space bounded by the

lens, ciliary body, and retina is the largest compartment of the eye and is called the posterior cavity It is filled with a transparent, jellylike matter called vitreous humor, which, along with the collagenous fibers, comprises the vitreous body.

 As a person ages, tiny,

dense clumps of gel or deposits of crystal-like substances form in the vitreous humor When these clumps cast shadows, the person sees small, moving specks in the field of vision.

 When a person sees an

object, either the object is giving off light, or light waves from another source are reflected off of it. These light waves enter the eye and an image of the object is focused on the eye.

 The focusing of the light

waves is called refraction Refraction occurs when light passes from a medium of one optical density to another. The lens, being convex, causes light waves to converge

 The image that forms on

the retina is upside down and reversed from left to right. The visual cortex interprets the image in its proper position

 If the eye shape is

normal, the light waves focus sharply on the retina

 The visual receptor cells

on the eye are modified neurons of two distinct kinds

Rods

Cones

 Rods and cones are in a

deep portion of the retina, closely associated with a layer of pigmented epithelium

 The epithelial pigment absorbs light waves not

absorbed by the receptor cells, and together with the pigment of the choroid coat, keeps light from reflecting off of the surfaces of the eye Projections from receptors, which are loaded with light-sensitive visual pigments, extend into this pigment layer.

 Visual receptors are

stimulated only when light reaches them. A light image focused on an area of the retina stimulates some receptors, and impulses from each travel to the brain. The brain interprets the whole image.

 Rods and cones provide

different aspects of vision.

Rods are hundreds of

times more sensitive to light than cones, and therefore provide vision in dim light, without color Cones detect color

 Rods and cones also

differ in the sharpness of the perceived images or visual acuity.

Cones provide sharp

images Rods provide more general outlines of objects

 Rods give less precise

images because nerve fibers from many rods converge. Convergence of impulses from cones is less common.

 The fovea centralis lacks

rods, but is densely packed with cones with few or no converging fibers. Also, the overlying layers of retina and the retinal blood vessels are displaced over the fovea centralis.

 Both rods and cones

contain light-sensitive pigments that decompose when they absorb light energy.
This protein is called

rhodopsin.

 In the presence of light,

rhodopsin is broken down into

A colorless protein

called opsin A yellowish substance called retinal, which is synthesized from vitamin A

 Decomposition of

rhodopsin molecules activates an enzyme that initiates a series of reactions altering the permeability of the rod cell membrane.
In bright light, rhodopsin

decomposes, decreasing rod sensitivity In dim light, rhodopsin is regenerated using ATP.

 Poor vision in dim light,

called night blindness, is caused by a vitamin A deficiency. Supplementing the diet with vitamin A is used to treat night blindness.

 Cones contain three

different opsin proteins

Erythrolabe (red cone) Chlorolabe (Green

cone) Cyanolabe (Blue cone)

The color a person

perceives depends on which cones are stimulated.

 Visual nerve pathways

bring nerve impulses from the retina.

Axons of the retinal

neurons Optic nerves Optic chiasma Optic radiations