5A-2 Astrophysics

Surveying The Stars

Astrophysics booklet pages 28 to 53

March 8th 2011

AQA A2 Specification
Lessons
1 to 9 1.3 Classification of Stars
Classification by luminosity Relation between brightness and apparent magnitude. Apparent magnitude, m Relation between intensity and apparent magnitude. Measurement of m from photographic plates and distinction between photographic and visual magnitude not required. Absolute magnitude, M Parsec and light year. Definition of M, relation to m: m M = 5 log (d / 10) Classification by temperature, black body radiation Stefans law and Wiens displacement law.General shape of black body curves, experimental verification is not required. Use of Wiens displacement law to estimate black-body temperature of sources maxT = constant = 2.9 10-3 mK. Inverse square law, assumptions in its application. Use of Stefans law to estimate area needed for sources to have same power output as the sun. P = AT4 Assumption that a star is a black body. Principles of the use of stellar spectral classes Description of the main classes. Temperature related to absorption spectra limited to Hydrogen Balmer absorption lines: need for atoms in n = 2 state. The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram General shape: main sequence, dwarfs and giants. Axis scales range from -15 to 10 (absolute magnitude) and 50 000 K to 2 500 K (temperature) or OBAFGKM (spectral class). Stellar evolution: path of a star similar to our Sun on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram from formation to white dwarf. Supernovae, neutron stars and black holes Defining properties: rapid increase in absolute magnitude of supernovae; composition and density of neutron stars; escape velocity > c for black holes. Use of supernovae as standard candles to determine distances. Controversy concerning accelerating Universe and dark energy. Supermassive black holes at the centre of galaxies. Calculation of the radius of the event horizon for a black hole Schwarzschild radius ( Rs ) Rs = 2GM / c2

Topics

Astronomical distances
distance in km
Top of the atmosphere International Space Station Geostationary satellite The Moon The Sun Neptune (from the Sun) Proxima Centuari (nearest star to the Sun) Sirius (brightest star) Centre of the Milky Way Andromeda Galaxy 100 100 270 to 270 to460 460 36 000 000 36 380 380 000 000 150000 000000 000 150 4 4500 500000 000000 000 12 40 40 x x 1012 (40 (40 000 000 000 000 000 000 000) 000)
12 12 80 80x x10 10 15 15 260 xx 10 260 10 18 18 20 20x x10 10 21 400 10 21 460 xx 10

multiplier
X3 X 120 X 11

X 400 X 30 X X 9000 9000

(X (X 270 270 000 000 Sun) Sun)

X2 2 X X 3300 3300 X
X 80 80 X

Furthest object observed (GRB as of April 23rd 2009)

X 20 000 X 23 000

Question
Calculate the time taken to: (a) travel to the Moon at 100 kmh-1 (63 m.p.h.) (b) (i) travel to the Sun and (ii) Proxima Centuari using the Apollo spacecraft that took three days to reach the Moon. Distances in km: Moon: 380 000 km Sun: 150 000 000 km Proxima Centuari: 40 x 1012 km (a) speed = distance / time becomes: time = distance / speed = 380 000 km / 100 kmh-1 = 3 800 hours = 158 days (about 5 months) (b) Apollo speed: = 380 000 km / 3 days = 128 000 km day-1 time = distance / speed (i) = 150 000 000 / 128 000 to the Sun = 1 170 days (3.2 years) (ii) = 40 x 1012 km / 128 000 = 313 000 000 days to Proxima Cent. = 860 000 years

The light year

One light year is the distance light travels through space in 1 year.
Question: Calculate the distance of one light year in metres. distance = speed x time = 3.0 x 108 ms-1 x 1 year = 3.0 x 108 ms-1 x (365.25 x 24 x 60 x 60) s = 9.47 x 1015 m (9.47 x 1012 km) Also used: light second (e.g. the Moon is 1.3 light seconds away) light minute (e.g. the Sun is 8.3 light minutes away)

The Astronomical Unit (AU)

This is the mean radius of the Earths orbit around the Sun.
1 AU = 150 000 000 km (150 x 109 m)

Questions on AU
1. Calculate the distance to Proxima Centuari in Astronomical Units, distance to PC = 40 x 1012 km 2. How many AUs are there in one light year? 1 AU = 150 x 109 m 1 lyr = 9.47 x 1015 m Ratio = 9.47 x 1015 / 150 x 109 = 63 000 AU lyr-1

AU = 40 x 1012 / 150 x 106 Distance to Proxima Centuari = 267 000 AU

Stellar parallax
This is the shifting of nearby stars against the background of more distant ones due to the orbital movement of the Earth about the Sun.
Earth - June

2
nearby star

Earth - December
View from the Earth:

distant stars

DECEMBER

JUNE

Measurement of the angle 2 can yield the distance to the nearby star.

The parsec (pc)

Earth - June

nearby star

Earth - December

tan = R d becomes: d = R / tan angle is always VERY small and so tan = in radians and so: d = R /

1 parsec is defined as the distance to a star which subtends an angle of 1 arc second to the line from the centre of the Earth to the centre of the Sun.

1 arc second = 1 degree / 3600

as 360 = 2 radians 1 arc second = 2 / (360 x 3600) = 4.85 x 10-6 radian

Distance measurement in parsecs

distance in parsecs = 1 / parallax angle in arc seconds
Parallax angle / arc seconds 1.00 0.50 Distance / parsecs 1.00 1.00 2.0 2.0

0.10
0.01

10 10 100 100

With ground based telescopes the parallax method of distance measurement is acceptably accurate for distances up to 100 pc.

Question 1
Calculate the distance of 1 parsec measured in (a) AU (b) metres (c) light years. 1 AU = 150 x 109 m 1 light year = 9.47 x 1015 m (b) metres: d=R/ R = 1AU = 150 x 109 m d = (150 x 109 m) / (4.85 x 10-6 rad) 1 parsec = 3.09 x 1016 m (c) light years: = 3.09 x 1016 / 9.47 x 1015 1 parsec = 3.26 light years

(a) AU: d=R/ R = 1AU d = 1 / (4.85 x 10-6 rad) 1 parsec = 207 000 AU

Question 2
Calculate the distance to a star of parallax angle 0.25 arc seconds in (a) parsecs and (b) light years. 1 parsec = 3.26 light years

(a) distance in parsecs = 1 / parallax angle in arc seconds = 1 / 0.25 distance to star = 4 parsecs
(b) 1 parsec = 3.26 light years distance = 4 x 3.26 distance to star = 13 light years

Luminosity
Luminosity is the power output of a star.
luminosity = power = energy output time unit: watt The brightness of a star depends on a stars luminosity.

Intensity of radiation ( I )
intensity = power of radiation area unit: W m -2 Example: At the Earths surface the average intensity of sunlight is about 1400 W m -2

Suns Luminosity Question

Calculate the luminosity of the Sun if the average intensity of sunlight at the Earth is 1360 W m -2. Distance from the Sun to the Earth = 150 x 106 km.
The Suns radiation spreads out spherically.

The surface area of a sphere, radius R is given by: A = 4 R 2 The surface area of a sphere of Earth radius: = 4 x (150 x 109 m)2 = 4 x 2.25 x 1022 = 2.83 x 1023 m2 Each of these m2 receives 1360 W. All of this power must come from the Sun. Therefore total power = luminosity = 1360 x 2.83 x 1023 Suns luminosity = 3.85 x 1026 W

Apparent magnitude, m
The apparent magnitude, m of a star in the night sky is a measure of its brightness which depends on the intensity of the light received from the star.
Stars were in ancient times divided into six levels of apparent magnitude. The brightest were called FIRST MAGNITUDE stars, those just visible to the unaided eye in the darkest sky, SIXTH MAGNITUDE.

Pogsons law (1856)

In 1856, Norman Robert Pogson defined that the average 1st star magnitude was 100x brighter than the average 6th magnitude star. This means that for each change of magnitude star brightness changes by about 2.5x. (2.55 is about 100) This resulted in a few very bright stars (e.g. Sirius) in having NEGATIVE apparent magnitudes.

Examples of apparent magnitude

Nightime Stars Sirius - 1.47 Sun Other Objects - 26.7

Vega
Deneb Polaris
Dimmest star visible from Addlestone Dimmest star visible from darkest sky

0
+ 1.25 + 2.01 about + 4 about + 6

Full Moon
Venus Jupiter
Andromeda Galaxy

- 12.6
- 4.6 (max) - 2.9 + 3.4 + 7.8 + 31.5

Betelgeuse + 0.58

Neptune
Faintest object observable by HST

Question
Calculate how much brighter Sirius (m = -1.47) is compared with Polaris (m = 2.01) Magnitude difference = 2.01 (-1.47) = 3.48 If a change of magnitude of 1.0 results in a brightness change of 2.5 then Sirius is 2.5 3.48 times brighter than Polaris = 24.3 times brighter.

Absolute magnitude, M
The absolute magnitude, M of a star is equal to its apparent magnitude if it were placed at a distance of 10 parsecs from the Earth. It can be shown that for a star distance d, in parsecs, from the Earth: m M = 5 log (d / 10) NOTE: log means BASE 10 logarithms

Question 1
Calculate the absolute magnitude of the Sun if its apparent magnitude is 26.7 1 parsec = 207 000 AU Distance from the Sun in parsecs: = 1 / 207 000 d = 0.000 00483 pc m M = 5 log (d / 10) rearranged: M = m - 5 log (d / 10) = (-26.7) - 5 log (0.000 00483 /10) = (-26.7) - 5 log (0.000 000 483) = (-26.7) - 5 log (0.000 000 483) = (-26.7) - 5 x (- 6.316) = (-26.7) - (- 31.6) Suns absolute magnitude = 4.9

Note: The Sun would appear to be a very faint star and it would probably not be visible from Addlestone!

Question 2
Sirius has an apparent magnitude of 1.47. Calculate the distance in AU it would need to be from the Earth to equal the brightness of the Suns apparent magnitude of -26.7. Sirius distance = 8.3 lyr 1 parsec = 3.26 light years 1 parsec = 207 000 AU Distance to Sirius in parsecs: = 8.3 / 3.26 d = 2.55 pc Siriuss absolute magnitude by the method of question 1: Siriuss M = +1.50 m M = 5 log (d / 10) rearranged: log (d / 10) = [(m M) / 5] = [(-26.7 1.50) / 5] = - 28.2 / 5 = - 5.64 antiloging: = 2.29 x 10-6 = d / 10 d = 2.29 x 10-5 pc = (2.29 x 10-5 x 207 000) AU = 4.74 AU

This is roughly the distance of Jupiter from the Earth

A wide field image of the sky including the Milky Way taken from Australia. Notice the different colours of the stars

Starlight
Stars differ in colour as well as brightness. Colour differences are only really apparent when stars are viewed through a telescope as they can collect more light than the unaided eye. A star emits thermal radiation that is continuous across the electromagnetic spectrum. However, each star has a wavelength at which it emits at maximum power. In the case of the Sun this corresponds to the wavelength of yellow light. The power variation versus wavelength follows the pattern of a black body radiator which is a perfect absorber (and emitter) of radiation.

Black body radiation curves

power radiated at each wavelength

2000 K

1250 K 1000 K
0 visible range 1 2 3 4 5 wavelength / m

Wiens displacement law

The wavelength at peak power, max , is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature, T of the surface of a black body. max T = a constant The constant is equal to 0.0029 metre kelvin
BEWARE! The above equation is usually quoted: max T = 0.0029 mK mK does NOT mean milli-kelvin. This equation can be used to determine the temperature of the surface (known as the photosphere) of a star.

Star colour and temperature

power

yellow red orange white Star colour: blue Surface T: 20 5500 3500 4300 7500 000 KK UV IR max : 386 530 150 nm 830 670 yellow infra-red red blue ultraviolet

500

1000

Capella Antares Arcturus Altair Example: Spica

wavelength / nm

BLUE stars are hotter than RED stars

Question 1
Calculate the peak wavelength emitted by the Sun if its surface temperature is 6000 K. Assuming that the Sun is a black body radiator, applying Weins displacement law: max T = 0.0029 mK max x 6000K = 0.0029 mK max = 0.0029 / 6000 Peak wavelength = 4.83 x 10-7 m (483 nm)

Question 2
Red giant Betelgeuse, peak wavelength 828nm, and blue supergiant Rigel, peak wavelength 263nm, are both in the constellation of Orion. Calculate the surface temperatures of these stars.
Betelgeuse

Weins displacement law: max T = 0.0029 mK becomes: T = 0.0029 mK / max

For Betelgeuse: T = 0.0029 mK / 828 nm = 0.0029 mK / 8.28 x 10-7 m = 3 500 K

For Rigel: T = 0.0029 mK / 2.63 x 10-7 m = 11 000 K

Rigel

Question 3
A very large black body has a This is the wavelength of thermal temperature of 2.7K. microwaves. Calculate its maximum power The very large black body wavelength. is the Universe. This cosmic microwave Weins displacement law: background radiation (CMB) max T = 0.0029 mK was first detected by max x 2.7K = 0.0029 mK Penzias and Wilson in 1965 max = 0.0029 / 2.7 and is one of the main pieces of evidence that Peak wavelength supports the Big Bang = 0.0011 m theory of the origin of the Universe. (1.1 mm)

Stefans law
The total energy per second (power), P emitted by a black body at absolute temperature, T is proportional to its surface area, A and to T4.

P = A T4
Where is a constant known as Stefans constant. = 5.67 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4
This equation can be used to determine the surface area and diameter of a star.

Question 1
Calculate the power output of the Sun if its diameter is 1.39 x 106 km and its surface temperature 5800 K. Area of a sphere: A = 4 R2 A = 4 x (1.39 x 106 km / 2) 2 = 4 x (1.39 x 109 m / 2) 2 = 4 x (6.95 x 108 ) 2 A = 6.070 x 1018 m2 Assuming that the Sun is a black body radiator, applying Stefans law: P = A T4 P = (5.67 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4) x (6.070 x 1018 m2) x (5800K)4 = (5.67 x 10-8 ) x (6.070 x 1018 ) x (1.132 x 1015) Power output of the Sun = 3.89 x 1026 W This is also called the Suns Luminosity and it agrees closely with the Luminosity calculation performed earlier based on the 1360Wm-2 sunlight intensity data.

Question 2
Calculate the surface area and radius of Betelgeuse if its luminosity is 4.09 x 1031 W and its surface temperature 3500 K. Assuming that Betelgeuse is a black body, applying Stefans law: P = A T4 4.09 x 1031 W = (5.67 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4) x A x (3500K)4 A = (4.09 x 1031) / [ (5.67 x 10-8) x (3500)4 ] = (4.09 x 1031) / [ (5.67 x 10-8) x (1.501 x 1014) ] = (4.09 x 1031) / (8.509 x 106) Surface area of Betelgeuse = 4.81 x 1024 m2 Area of a sphere: A = 4 R2 R = (A / 4) = (4.81 x 1024 / 4) = (3.825 x 1023) R = 6.18 x 1011 m Radius of Betelgeuse = 6.18 x 1011 m

(618 000 000 km)

This approximately 4X the radius of the Earths orbit, about of the orbit of Jupiter. This is why Betelgeuse is called a SUPER-GIANT.

Stellar spectra
The photosphere of a star gives off a continuous spectrum. However, when this light passes through the outmost layer of a star, the corona, some of the wavelengths are absorbed by the hot gases in this region. This causes dark lines to be seen in the otherwise continuous spectrum given out by the star. The wavelengths of these dark lines are characteristic to the elements and compounds found in the corona of the star. The chemical composition of the star can be determined by comparing a stars spectrum with the known absorption spectra for different elements and compounds.
photosphere

corona

Stellar spectral classes

Stars can be classified by their spectra

Starting from the hottest stars the groups are:

O, B, A, F, G, K, M
There are two further groups (not required in the exam) called L and T. In these groups are found red and brown dwarf stars.

O Be A Fine Girl or Guy Kiss Me

spectral class

Intrinsic colour

Temperature (K) 25 25 000 000 to 50 50 000 000 to 11000 11 000 to25 25000 000 to 7 7500 500 to 000 to11 11 000 6 000to 6000 to 7 500 7500 5000 5 000 to 6000 6 000 to 3 500 3500 to 5000 5 000 to

Prominent absorption lines He+ He H He+ He H He H He H H (strongest), (strongest) ionised ionised metals metals ionised ionised metals metals ionised and neutral metals neutral metals neutral metals

Spectrum

O B A G K

blue blue bluewhite white yellowwhite orange red

2500 2 500 to 3500 3 500 to

neutral metals and and TiO TiO

Balmer absorption lines

The hydrogen absorption lines found in the visible spectrum of the hottest stars (O, B and A only) are called Balmer lines. In such stars hydrogen atoms exist with electrons in the n = 2 state. When these atoms are excited by the absorption of photons from the photosphere their electrons change from n = 2 to higher levels. When they do this they absorb particular Balmer series light wavelengths. These wavelengths show up as dark lines in the stars spectrum.

n=5 n=4 n=3

n=2

434 nm 486 nm

656 nm

Question (Revision of Unit 1)

A fourth, violet Balmer line has a wavelength of 410 nm and is due to the transition of an electron between the 2nd and 6th energy levels. Calculate (a) the frequency and (b) the energy of the absorbed photon. c = 3.0 x 108 ms-1 h = 6.63 x 10-34 Js (a) c = f becomes: f=c/ = (3.0 x 108 ms-1) / (410 nm) = (3.0 x 108 ms-1) / (410 x 10-9 m) photon frequency = 7.32 x 1014 Hz (b) E = h f = (6.63 x 10-34 Js) x (7.32 x 1014 Hz) photon energy = 4.85 x 10-19 J

The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram

- 15 absolute magnitude supergiants

- 10
-5 0 +5 giants

+ 10
The Sun + 15

40 000 O B

20 000 A

10 000 F G

5000 K

2500 temperature / K M

The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram

MAIN SEQUENCE Most stars found in this region. Star masses vary from cool low power red dwarf stars of about 0.1x solar mass at the bottom right to very hot blue stars of about 30x solar mass at the top left. GIANTS Stars that are between 10 to 100x larger than the Sun. SUPERGIANTS Very rare. Stars that are about 1000x larger than the Sun. WHITE DWARFS Much smaller than the Sun but hotter.

The above illustration represents star classes with the colours very close to those actually perceived by the human eye. The relative sizes are for main sequence stars.

Question
An orange giant and a main sequence star have the same absolute magnitude of 0. Their surface temperatures are 5000K and 15 000K respectively. Show that the radius of the orange giant is 9 times larger than that of the main sequence star. But both stars have the same power because they have the same absolute magnitude. that is: Po = Pm and so: Ao To4 = Am Tm4 Ao To4 = Am Tm4 Ao / Am = Tm4 / To4 but the area of a sphere: A = 4 R2 hence: (4 R2)o / (4 R2)m = Tm4 / To4 R2o / R2m = Tm4 / To4 Ro / Rm = Tm2 / To2 Ro / Rm = (Tm / To ) 2 Ro / Rm = (15000 K / 5000 K ) 2 Ro / Rm = (3 ) 2 Ro / Rm = 9 QED

Assuming that both stars act like black bodies, Stefans law applies. P = A T4 For the orange giant: Po = Ao To4 For the main sequence star: Pm = Am Tm4

The evolution of a Sun like star

1. NEBULA AND PROTOSTAR absolute A star is formed as dust and gas magnitude clouds (nebulae) in space collapse under their own gravitational attraction becoming denser and denser to form a protostar (a star in the making). In the collapse gravitational potential energy is converted into thermal energy as the atoms and molecules gain kinetic energy. The interior of the protostar becomes hotter and hotter. If the protostar has sufficient mass (> 0.08 x Sun) the temperature HIGH becomes high enough for nuclear temperature fusion of hydrogen to helium to occur in its core. A star is formed.

protostar collapsing and warming

nebula

LOW temperature

2. MAIN SEQUENCE The newly formed star reaches internal equilibrium as the inward gravitational attraction is balanced by outward radiation pressure. The star becomes stable with a near constant luminosity. The greater the mass of the star, the higher will be its absolute magnitude and surface temperature but the shorter is the time the star remains MAIN SEQUENCE. The Sun is about half-way through its 10 billion year passage. The largest stars may only last for tens of millions of years. While on the MAIN SEQUENCE the stars absolute magnitude and surface temperature gradually increase. In about two billion years time the Earth will become too hot to sustain life.

absolute magnitude

The Sun NOW

gradual warming
HIGH temperature LOW temperature

3. RED GIANT Once most of the hydrogen in the core of the star has been converted to helium, the core collapses on itself and the outer layers of the star expand and cool as a result. The star swells out, moves off the MAIN SEQUENCE and becomes a RED GIANT. The temperature of the helium core increases as it collapses. This causes surrounding hydrogen to undergo fusion, which heats the core further. When the core reaches about 108 K helium nuclei undergo fusion. This forms even heavier nuclei principally beryllium, carbon and oxygen. The luminosity of the star increases as the star expands. The Sun is expected to achieve a radius roughly equal to the Earths orbit. The RED GIANT phase lasts for about one fifth of the MAIN SEQUENCE stage.

absolute magnitude

red giant

HIGH temperature

LOW temperature

4. PLANETARY NEBULA AND WHITE DWARF When nuclear fusion in the core of a giant star ceases, the star cools and its core contracts, causing the outer layers of the star to be thrown off.

absolute magnitude

The Cats Eye Planetary Nebula

The outer layers are thrown off as shells of hot gas and dust to form a PLANETARY NEBULA.
The remaining core of the star is white hot due to the release of gravitational energy. If it is less than about 1.4 solar masses, the contraction of the core stops as the electrons in the core can no longer be forced any closer. The star is now stable and has become a WHITE DWARF. This gradually cools to invisibility over a few billion years.

red giant planetary nebula

white dwarf
HIGH temperature LOW temperature

absolute magnitude

red giant

planetary nebula

protostar white dwarf

HIGH temperature LOW temperature

nebula

Red Supergiant Stars

If a star is greater than 4 solar masses, the core becomes hot enough to cause energy release, through further fusion, to form nuclei as heavy as iron in successive shells. The star now has an onion like internal structure.

Supergiant star Betelgeuse imaged in ultraviolet light by the Hubble Space Telescope and subsequently enhanced by NASA. The bright white spot is likely one of its poles.

Supernovae
A supernovae can occur when the iron core of supergiant is greater than about 1.4 solar masses. In this case the gravitational forces are too great for the repulsive forces of electrons. Electrons are forced to react with protons to form neutrons.
The Crab Nebula The remnant of a supernova observed in 1054

p + e - n + ve
The sudden collapse of the core occurs within a few seconds and its density increases to that of atomic nuclei, about 1017 kgm-3 The core suddenly becomes rigid and collapsing matter surrounding the core hits it and rebounds as a shock wave propelling the surrounding matter outwards into space in a cataclysmic explosion. The exploding star releases so much energy that it can outshine the host galaxy.

A supernova is typically a thousand million times more luminous than the Sun. Within 24 hours its absolute magnitude will reach between -15 and -20.
Elements heavier than iron are formed by nuclear fusion in a supernova explosion. Their existence in the Earth tells us that the Solar System formed from the remnants of a supernova.

Types of supernova
Type Spectrum no hydrogen lines; strong silicon line no hydrogen lines; strong helium line no hydrogen or helium lines Light output decreases steadily decreases steadily decreases steadily Origin white dwarf attracts matter and explodes supergiant collapses then explodes supergiant collapses then explodes supergiant collapses then explodes

Ia Ib

Ic
II

strong hydrogen decreases or helium lines unsteadily

Supernovae as standard candles

Type 1a supernovae have a known peak luminosity allowing them to be used as standard candles. At their peak all of these supernovae have an absolute magnitude, M of -19.3 0.03. By noting their apparent peak magnitude, m such supernovae can be used to determine this distances to galaxies using the equation: m M = 5 log (d / 10)

Question
In a distant galaxy a Type 1a supernova is observed to have an apparent magnitude of + 8.0. Calculate the distance to this galaxy in (a) parsecs and (b) light years if the supernova has an absolute magnitude of 19. 1 parsec = 3.26 light years m M = 5 log (d / 10) rearranged: log (d / 10) = [(m M) / 5] = [(8.0 (-19) / 5] = 27 / 5 = 5.4 antiloging: = 251 000 = d / 10 d = 2.51 x 106 pc Distance to galaxy = 2.5 Mpc = (2.51 x 106 x 3.26) light years Distance = 8.2 million light years

Neutron stars
A neutron star is formed from the remnant core of a supernova.
Gravitational forces cause electrons to react with protons to form neutrons. p + e - n + ve

The star now has a density of atomic nuclei, about 1017 kgm-3

Neutron stars were first discovered in 1967 as a result of the radio beams that they emit as they rapidly rotate.
They are also called pulsars with frequencies of up to 30 Hz

Question
Estimate the mass of a tea-spoonful of neutron star. Take the density of a neutron star to be 1.0 x 1017 kgm-3 Estimated volume of the contents of a tea-spoon = 2 cm3 density = mass / volume gives: mass = density x volume mass = (1.0 x 1017 kgm-3 ) x (2 cm3) = (1.0 x 1017 kgm-3 ) x (0.000 002 m3)

mass of a tea-spoonful of neutron star = 2 x 1011 kg = 2 billion tonnes!

Black holes
If the core remnant of a supernova is greater than about 3 solar masses the neutrons are unable to withstand the immense gravitational forces pushing them together. The core collapses on itself and becomes so dense that not even light can escape from it. It is now a black hole. What the core now consists of is unknown. It is sometimes referred to as a singularity.

Evidence for the existence of black holes was first found in 1971 from an X-ray source called Cygnus X-1 which was in the same location as a supergiant star.

Star evolution summary

protostar main sequence star MASS >4 red supergiant

= Sun
CORE MASS

< 1.4

> 1.4 supernova

MASS > 0.05 nebula MASS < 0.05 MASS < 0.23

MASS 0.23 to 4

red giant
CORE MASS planetary nebula <3 >3

brown dwarf (failed star)

white dwarf

neutron star

black hole

Schwarzchild radius, Rs
The size of a black hole is defined as the distance from its centre at which the escape speed is equal to that of light. This is known as the Schwarzchild radius, Rs where: Rs = 2GM / c2 The surface of the sphere defined by the Schwarzchild radius is called the event horizon, because nothing that occurs inside this boundary (any event) can be observed on the outside.
event horizon

Rs

singularity

Question
Calculate the for a black hole of mass 3 x Sun. (a) its Schwarzchild radius, (b) its mean density inside its event horizon. Suns mass = 2.0 x 1030 kg G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2 kg-2 c = 3.00 x 108 x ms-1
(a) Rs = 2GM / c2 = [2 x (6.67 x 10-11 Nm2 kg-2) x (3 x 2.0 x 1030 kg)] / (3.00 x 108 x ms-1)2 = (8.00 x 1020) / (9.00 x 1016 ) = 8.89 x 103 m Schwarzchild radius = 8.89 km (b) density = mass / volume volume of a sphere: = 4/3 R3 = 4/3 (8.89 x 103)3 = 4/3 x (7.03 x 1011) volume = 2.94 x 1012 m3 and so: density = (6.0 x 1030 kg) / (2.94 x 1012 m3) Mean density inside the event horizon = 2.03 x 1018 kgm-3

Galactic centres
Supermassive black holes are thought to exist at the centres of most galaxies including our own.
The mass of such black holes can be estimated by measuring the orbital speeds of stars near to the galactic centre.

In the case of the Milky Way this is estimated to be about 2.6 million solar masses.

Sagittarius A The location of the supermassive black hole at the centre of our galaxy

Question
Calculate the for a black hole at the centre of the Milky Way of mass 2.6 million x Sun. (a) its Schwarzchild radius, (b) its mean density inside its event horizon. Suns mass = 2.0 x 1030 kg G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2 kg-2 c = 3.00 x 108 x ms-1
(a) Rs = 2GM / c2
= [2 x (6.67 x 10-11 Nm2 kg-2) x (2.6 x 106 x 2.0 x 1030 kg)]

/ (3.00 x 108 x ms-1)2 = (6.90 x 1026) / (9.00 x 1016 ) = 7.71 x 109 m Schwarzchild radius = 7.71 million km

(b) density = mass / volume volume of a sphere: = 4/3 R3 = 4/3 (7.71 x 109)3 = 4/3 x (4.58 x 1029) volume = 1.92 x 1030 m3 and so: density = (5.2 x 1036 kg) / (1.92 x 1030 m3) Mean density inside the event horizon = 2.71 x 106 kgm-3
NOTE: This is 1012 x lower than the low mass (3 x Sun ) black hole.

Internet Links
Black-body radiation curves - NTNU Resolution from two circular apertures - NTNU The Life History of a Star Powerpoint presentation by KT Sequential Puzzle on Star Evolution order- by KT - Microsoft WORD

Core Notes from Student Guide pages 28 to 53

1. 2. 3. What is a light year? Draw a diagram and explain the meaning of the parsec. What is meant by (a) apparent & (b) absolute magnitude? Give the equation that relates these two quantities. Copy Figure 1 on page 34 and explain the shapes of the curves. Define Weins and Stefans and give equations relating to these laws. Copy the table on page 37 and explain the process of formation of star spectra. How are Balmer lines formed in star spectra?
8. Copy the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram on page 42 and explain the patterns shown. 9. Describe the evolution of a star similar to the Sun with reference to the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram. 10. Outline the evolution of a high mass star. Explain how the mass of a star, or its core, determines what happens. 11. Explain how supernovae can be used as standard candles to determine distance. 12. What is (a) a neutron star; (b) a pulsar & (c) a black hole? 13. Explain what is meant by the Schwarzschild radius. 14. What is the evidence for supermassive black holes at the centres of galaxies?

4. 5. 6. 7.

Notes from the Student Guide pages 28 to 33

2.1 Star Magnitudes

1. What is a light year? 2. Draw a diagram and explain the meaning of the parsec. 3. What is meant by (a) apparent & (b) absolute magnitude? Give the equation that relates these two quantities. 4. Repeat the worked example on page 32 this time for a star of apparent magnitude 8.0 5. Try the summary questions on pages 32 & 33

Notes from the Student Guide pages 34 to 39

2.2 Classifying Stars
1. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Copy Figure 1 on page 34 and explain the shapes of the curves. Define Weins and Stefans and give equations relating to these laws. Copy the table on page 37 and explain the process of formation of star spectra. How are Balmer lines formed in star spectra?
Repeat the worked example on page 35 this time for a star whose peak intensity wavelength is at 150 nm. Repeat the worked example on page 36 this time for a star whose power output is 9.0 x 1029 W and a surface temperature of 5000 K. It will have a different surface area. Try the summary questions on page 39

Notes from the Student Guide pages 40 to 47

2.3 The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
1.
2.

Copy the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram on page 42 and explain the patterns shown. Describe the evolution of a star similar to the Sun with reference to the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram.
Repeat the worked example on page 41 this time for a star that has a surface temperature of 5000 K. Try the summary questions on page 46 & 47

3.

4.

Notes from the Student Guide pages 48 to 53

2.4 Supernovae, Neutron Stars & Black Holes
1. Outline the evolution of a high mass star. Explain how the mass of a star, or its core, determines what happens. Explain how supernovae can be used as standard candles to determine distance. What is (a) a neutron star; (b) a pulsar & (c) a black hole? Explain what is meant by the Schwarzschild radius. What is the evidence for supermassive black holes at the centres of galaxies?
Try the summary questions on page 52 & 53

2. 3. 4. 5.

6.