Basics of Reservoir Engg

Introduction to Reservoir Engineering
U. S. Prasad
C. P. Verma
p grad
k
V
=
Reservoir Engineering
Learning Objectives :

Basic concerns of Reservoir Engineering
Scope of Reservoir engineering
Basic concepts and operating variables
Tools of reservoir engineering
DEFINITIONs OF RESERVOIR
ENGINEERING
The phase of engineering which deals with the
transfer of fluids to, from or through the
reservoirs

oil
Functions of RESERVOIR
ENGINEERING
To continuously monitor the reservoir and collect
relevant data and interpret it to be able to
1. Determine (present conditions))
2. Estimate ( future conditions) and
3. Control
the movement of fluids through the reservoir
so that

Objectives of reservoir
engineering
a) To enhance ( increase recovery
factor) and
b) To accelerate ( increase production
rate)
the oil recovery
Types of reservoir energy
1. - Energy of compression of water
and rock within the reservoir
2. - Energy of compression of oil
within the reservoir
3. - Energy of compression of gas
4. - Energy of compression of water
that are in adjacent or underlying
aquifers
Types of reservoir energy
5. The gravitational energy that
causes oil and gas to segregate
6. The surface energy manifesting
itself in capillary pores

Producing mechanisms
based on dominant reservoir energy being released
Common special
Depletion
drive
Gas cap
drive
imbibition compaction
Solution
Gas drive
Full Partial
Segregating
Nonsegregating
Water drive
Combination drive
Formation
drive
I.Edge
II.Bottom
I.Edge
II.Bottom
gravity
Basic concerns of reservoir engineers
(i.e.Reservoir engineer has to
continuously answer:)
1. To calculate the volume of the initial
hydrocarbon present in the
reservoir ?
2. How much of the initial fluids have
been recovered ?
3. How much is left ?

Reservoir engineer has to
continuously answer:
4. How can we increase recovery
economically?
5. What data are needed to answer the
questions?
Reservoir engineer has to
continuously answer:
7. How can I measure the performance
of the reservoir?
8. How can I improve the
performance?
Scope of Reservoir engineering:
Reservoir engineer has to understand
(1) the nature of reservoir fluids
(2) the nature of reservoir rocks and
(3)the nature and behavior of rock
fluid systems
In dealing with rock fluid systems we
have
basic concepts and
operating variables.
Basic concepts are: multiphase fluid
flow, capillary behavior and fluid
displacement are to name a few.
Operating variables are:
geometrical configuration of the rock-fluid system, i.e.
spacing of wells
boundary conditions of flow, i.e. rates at which oil is
produced or pressure allowed to change in the well
Types and characters of the reservoir fluids involved, i.e.
amount of gas space allowed to develop, the water
injected or relative viscosities of oil and water
The sequence of operations undertaken,.i.e. whether
pressure depletion is permitted before or after
injection of water
Tools of Reservoir engineering:
Under the influence of these operating
variables, answering the previous
questions requires material balance
calculations and performance
evaluations i.e predictions and
interperations.
Among the predictive and
interpretation tools available are
simple MBE equation (zero
dimensional), frontal advance
equation (1D), numerical
simulators.
Numerical simulators are in fact are
multidimensional, multiphase
dynamic material balance
programs.
The classical MBE approach is well
worth as it provides valuable insight
into behavior of HC reservoirs
Secondary drive Mechanism & EOR
Phases in Field
Development

Broadly three phases in the
development of a field. The
phases are defined as;

Primary recovery phase
Secondary recovery phase
Tertiary recovery phase

Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Q
O
Time
Primary Recovery Phase
Primary oil recovery phase describes the production of
hydrocarbons under the natural driving mechanism present in the
reservoir.
The sources of natural reservoir energy are fluid and rock
expansion, solution gas drive, gravity drainage, and the influx of
water from aquifers.
Based on the principal source of reservoir energy, the reservoirs
are classified as (1) Water drive, (2) solution gas drive, (3) fluid
expansion, (4) gas-cap drive, and (5) gravity drainage.
These natural sources of energy displace oil towards the producer
without supplementary help from injected fluids such as water or
gas.

Secondary Recovery Phase

Lack of sufficient natural drive needs supplementing the natural
reservoir energy by introducing some form of artificial drive, the
most basic method being the injection of gas or water.

Waterflooding, called secondary recovery because the process
yields a second batch of oil after a field is depleted by primary
production

The practice of Waterflooding apparently began accidentally as
early as 1890, when operators realised that water entering the
productive formation was stimulating production.

Tertiary Recovery/EOR Phase
The tertiary recovery is also a supplementation of
natural reservoir energy; however it is defined as that
additional recovery over and above what could be
recovered from primary and secondary recovery
methods.

Different EOR processes are

EOR Processes

Thermal EOR
Processes

Chemical EOR
Processes

Miscible EOR
Processes

Immiscible EOR
Processes

Microbial EOR
Processes
- In-situ
combus
tion
- Air
injectio
n
- Steam
flooding
- Alkali-
Surfactant
-Polymer
- Polymer

- Hydrocarbon
miscible
- CO2 miscible
- N2 miscible
- Flue gas

- Hydrocarbon
immiscible
- CO2
immiscible
- N2
immiscible
- Flue gas

- Consortium
of Bacteria
used for
insitu
generation
of
suphonates
, CO2,etc.
for profile
modificatio
n

Water Flooding
Waterflooding is the most widely used post-primary
recovery methods practiced all over the world as it is
inexpensive.
Waterflooding serves two purposes in maintaining the
reservoir pressure which energises the system and in
displacing oil towards the production wells.

Waterflooding
Waterflooding Highlights
Description
Waterflooding consists of injecting water into the
reservoir. Water is injected in patterns or along the
periphery of the reservoir.
Mechanisms That Improve Recovery Efficiency
Water drive
Increased pressure
Waterflooding Highlights
Limitations
High oil viscosities result in high mobility
ratios.
Some heterogeneity is acceptable, but avoid
extensive fractures.
Challenges
Poor compatibility between the injected water
and the reservoir may cause formation damage.
Subsurface fluid control to divert injected water
and to shut off undesirable produced fluids.

While deciding suitability of a candidate
reservoir for Waterflooding following reservoir
characteristics should be considered;

Flood Pattern
Reservoir Heterogeneity
Mobility Ratio
Recovery Efficiency

Flood Pattern
The areal geometry of the
reservoir will influence the
location of wells and that will
essentially decide the flooding
pattern (injection-production
well arrangements).
The commonly used flood
patterns are given in the
following figures;

Reservoir Heterogeneity
Substantial reservoir heterogeneity is one of the
major problems for successful Waterflooding.
Variation in properties can be areal and vertical.
Heterogeneity of the reservoirs is attributed to the
depositional environment and subsequent events.
Permeability variation is considered to be one of
the most important parameter which affects the
efficiency of water flooding.

Mobility Ratio
Mobility ratio is the ratio of the displacing phase
and the displaced
Mobility ratio less than 1 suggests piston type of
displacement leading to better sweep efficiency
than cases where mobility ratio is greater than 1.
Low oil viscosity is preferred for water flooding. The
reason is; at abandonment areal sweep efficiency
would be very high.

Recovery Efficiency
A simplistic model for estimating overall recovery involves
factoring the recovery efficiency into individual process
efficiencies.

E
R
= E
A
* E
V
* E
D
* E
M

Where;
E
R
= Overall recovery efficiency
E
A
= areal sweep efficiency
E
V
= Vertical sweep efficiency
E
D
= Displacement efficiency
E
M
= mobilization efficiency

Areal Sweep Efficiency
It is defined as the fractional area of the field that is
invaded by an injected fluid. The major factors
determining areal sweep are fluid mobility, pattern
type, areal heterogeneity, extent of field
development, and total volume of fluid injected
Vertical Sweep Efficiency
It is defined as the fraction of the vertical section
that is contacted by injected fluids and is primarily
a function of the vertical heterogeneity and the
degree of vertical segregation

Displacement Efficiency
It is the fraction of the mobile oil in the swept zone that has been
displaced and is a function of the volume injected, the fluid viscosities
and the relative permeability curves of the rock
Mobilization Efficiency
It is defined as the fraction of the oil in place at the start of a recovery
process that ultimately could be recovered by that process and is given
as

oi
oi
of orp
oi
oi
M
B
S
B S
B
S
E
/
=

S
oi
= oil saturation at start of project
B
oi
= Oil formation factor at start of project
S
orp
= residual oil to process
B
of
= Oil formation volume factor at the end of process
Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) Processes
Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) processes include all
methods that use external sources of energy
and/or materials to recover oil that cannot be
produced, economically by conventional means.

Currently Used EOR Processes
Thermal methods
steam stimulation,
steamflooding,
hot water drive,
in-situ combustion
Currently Used EOR Processes
Chemical methods
Polymer, surfactant,
Caustic, and micellar/polymer
flooding.
Miscible / Immiscible methods
Hydrocarbon gas
CO
2
, nitrogen, flue gas

Thermal (Steamflooding)
Steamflooding Highlights
Description
Steamflooding consists of injecting about
80% quality steam to displace oil.
Normal practice is to precede and
accompany the steam drive by a cyclic
steam stimulation of the producing wells
(called huff and puff).

Mechanisms That Improve Recovery
Efficiency
Viscosity reduction / steam distillation.
Thermal expansion.
Supplies pressure to drive oil to the
producing well.

Limitations
Applicable to viscous oils in massive, high
permeability sandstones or unconsolidated sands.
Oil saturations must be high, and pay zones should
be > 20 feet thick to minimize heat losses to
adjacent formations.
Steamflooded reservoirs should be as shallow as
possible, because of excessive wellbore heat
losses.

Thermal (Steamflooding) Highlights
More Limitations
Steamflooding is not normally done in carbonate
reservoirs.
Since about 1/3 of the additional oil recovered is
consumed to generate the required steam, the cost
per incremental barrel of oil is high.
A low percentage of water-sensitive clays is
desired for good injectivity.
Challenges
Adverse mobility ratio and channeling of steam.

Polymer Flooding
Polymer Flooding Highlights
Description
Polymer augmented waterflooding consists
of adding water soluble polymers to the
water before it is injected into the reservoir.
Mechanisms That Improve Recovery
Efficiency
Mobility control (improves volumetric
sweep efficiency).

Limitations
High oil viscosities require a higher polymer
concentration.
Results are normally better if the polymer flood is started
before the water-oil ratio becomes excessively high.
Clays increase polymer adsorption.
Some heterogeneity is acceptable, but avoid extensive
fractures. If fractures are present, the crosslinked or gelled
polymer techniques may be applicable.

Limitations
High oil viscosities require a higher polymer
concentration.
Results are normally better if the polymer flood is started
before the water-oil ratio becomes excessively high.
Clays increase polymer adsorption.
Some heterogeneity is acceptable, but avoid extensive
fractures. If fractures are present, the crosslinked or gelled
polymer techniques may be applicable.

Challenges
Lower injectivity than with water can adversely
affect oil production rates in the early stages of the
polymer flood.
Acrylamide-type polymers loose viscosity due to
shear degradation, salinity and divalent ions.
Xanthan gum polymers cost more, are subject to
microbial degradation, and have a greater potential
for wellbore plugging.

Surfactant/Polymer Flooding
Highlights
Description
Surfactant/polymer flooding consists of injecting a
slug that contains water, surfactant, electrolyte
(salt), usually a co-solvent (alcohol), followed by
polymer-thickened water.
Interfacial tension reduction (improves
displacement sweep efficiency).
Mobility control (improves volumetric sweep
efficiency).

Highlights
Limitations
An areal sweep of more than 50% for waterflood is
desired.
Relatively homogeneous formation.
High amounts of anhydrite, gypsum, or clays are
undesirable.
Available systems provide optimum behavior within a
narrow set of conditions.
With commercially available surfactants, formation water
chlorides should be <20,000 ppm and divalent ions (Ca
++

and Mg
++
) <500 ppm.

Highlights
Challenges
Complex and expensive system.
Possibility of chromatographic separation of
chemicals.
High adsorption of surfactant.
Interactions between surfactant and polymer.
Degradation of chemicals at high temperature.

Miscible Gas Flooding
(CO
2
Injection)
(CO
2
Injection) Highlights
Description
CO
2
flooding consists of injecting large quantities
of CO
2
(15% or more hydrocarbon pore volumes)
in the reservoir to form a miscible flood.
CO
2
extracts the light-to-intermediate components
from the oil, and, if the pressure is high enough,
develops miscibility to displace oil from the
reservoir.
Viscosity reduction / oil swelling.

(CO
2
Limitations
Very low Viscosity of CO
2
results in poor
mobility control.
Availability of CO
2

Surface Facilities

(CO
2
Challenges
Early breakthrough of CO
2
causes problems.
Corrosion in producing wells.
The necessity of separating CO
2
from saleable
hydrocarbons. Repressuring of CO
2
for recycling.
A large requirement of CO
2
per incremental barrel
produced.

MBE Terminology
N Initial reservoir oil volume, STB
B
oi
Initial oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
N
p
Cumulative produced oil, STB
B
o
Oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
G Initial reservoir (free) gas (in gas cap), SCF
B
gi
Initial gas formation volume factor, bbl/SCF
MBE MBE Terminology
R
soi
Initial solution gas oil ratio, SCF/STB
R
p
Cumulative produced gas oil ratio , SCF/STB
R
so
Solution gas oil ratio, SCF/STB
G Initial reservoir (free) gas (in gas cap), SCF
B
g
Gas formation volume factor, bbl/SCF
W (Volume of) initial reservoir water
MBE Terminology
W
p
Cumulative produced water, STB
B
w
Water formation volume factor, bbl/STB
W
e
Water influx into the reservoir, bbl
W
I
Cumulative water injected, bbl
G
I
Cumulative gas injected, SCF
B
Ig
Injected gas formation volume factor, bbl/SCF

MBE Terminology
C
w
Water isothermal compressibility, psi
-1

Ap Change in average reservoir pressure, psi
S
wi
Initial water saturation
V
p
Initial pore volume, bbl
C
f
Formation isothermal compressibility, psi
-1

MBE variables :
,
,
gi
oi
GB
Initial gas volume of gas cap bbl
m
Volume of initial oil in place bbl NB
= =
Define/derive the following terms
gi gi
GB mNB =
MBE variables :
(1 )
p wi oi oi
V S NB mNB = +
Reservoir (oil zone plus gas cap) pore
volume relations:
(1 )
(1 )
oi
p
wi
NB m
V
S
+
=
Assumes uniform S
wi
in oil and gas zones
Compressibility relations for any
material
By definition:
1 dv
c
v dp
=
1
p V
p V
i i
cdp dv
v
=
} }
1
p
V
i
p V
i
cdp dv
v
=
} }
( )
ln
i
i
V
c p p
V
| |
=
|
\ .
( ) ( )
exp
i
i
V
c p p
V
=
( )
1
i
i
V
c p p
V
= +
( )
i i i
V V V c p p =
Expanding the exponential term for small c values:
Compressibility relations
Defining the positive AV and Ap
values as follows:
i
V V c p A = A
i
V V V A =
i
p p p A =
We obtain

Basics of Reservoir Engg

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Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

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