COE 381 MICROPROCESSORS

UNIT 4 INTEL PROCESSOR BASICS

Chapter Objectives
Microprocessor Fundamentals
Major Components of a Computer MPU Model Length of Instructions Memory Map

Memory Devices

Memory Read and Write Control Signals

Input and Output Cycles

Memory Mapped IO and Separate I/O Mapping

Address Decoding

Data Buses and Tristate Logic

Memory Access Timing

Chapter Objectives
The 8086/8088 Microprocessors, Interrupts and DMA
The 8088 Microprocessor in Circuit

8086/8088 Memory and I/O Cycles

Interrupts

Direct Memory Access

Micro Computer Performance Considerations

SECTION 1:

MICROPROCESSOR FUNDAMENTALS

Outline of the Rest of Course

MPU Register set and Internal Architecture MPU buses Memory Considerations MPU interfacing: Interrupts and DMA Intel 8086 Architecture Serial interface

MPU Fundamentals
For Simplicity look at a simple model of an MPU
8-bit 64K address space Intel style interface

Simplified Block Diagram of a Microcomputer

Address Bus

MAIN MEMORY MPU

Data Bus

I/O DEVICES (Ports)

Control Lines (Bus)

Diagram of a Generic Microprocessor

External Address Bus
Memory Addr Reg

General Registers

Program Counter Stack Pointer

Internal Data Bus

Instruction Register

Accumulator

Temp Reg

Instruction Decoder

C Z N

ALU
RESET

Control Unit
Clock

IOR#

IOW#

MEMR#

MEMW#

INTR

INTA#

MPU

External Data Bus

General Registers
Small set of internal registers - temporary data storage CU ensures that data from the correct register is presented to the ALU CU ensures that data is written back to correct register Accumulator usually holds ALU result

Status or Flags Register (Example)

OITSZAPC
Overflow Flag Interrupt Flag Trap Flag Sign Flag Zero Flag Auxiliary Flag Parity Flag Carry Flag

Program Counter Register

Points to the next register to be executed Called Instruction Pointer in Intel x86 Architecture

Stack Pointer
STACK: Part of memory where program data can be stored by a simple PUSH operation Restore data by a POP Stack is in main memory and is defined by the program Stack Pointer (SP) keeps track of the next location available on the Stack Organised as a FILO Buffer

Stack Exercise
At the start of the following sequence the Stack Pointer has the value C000h. The following code is executed PUSH AL ; Push 8 bit accumulator data PUSH PSW ; Push 8 bit flags register What is the value of the SP at this point? The following instructions are executed without any further stack activity in the meantime POP POP PSW AL ; Restore 8 bit flags register ; Restore 8 bit accumulator data

What is the value of the SP at this point? Note how the POP order is the reverse of the PUSH order.

Simple Microprocessor Model

Processor Clock Address Bus 16-bit Uni-directional Data Bus 8-bit Bi-directional I/O Read I/O Write MEMR# Memory Read MEMW# Memory Write
IOR# IOW# INTR INTA#

MPU Model 8-bit

Interrupt Control

HLDA#

Reset
HOLD

DMA Control

Fetch-Decode-Execute

FETCH

DECODE

EXECUTE

Fetch-Decode-Execute (Memory)
Address Bus Address Bus Address Bus

MPU

Program Memory

MPU

Program Memory

MPU

Program Memory

Data Bus

Data Bus

Data Bus

Address (IP) is sent to memory via the address bus

Instructiom Op Code is read into the IR register via the data bus for decoding

Instruction is executed

Instruction Cycle Examples

The following code fragment starts execution at address 0000h: Machine Code F8 A00040 A20020 Address 0000 0001 0004 Assembly Code CLC MOV AL, [4000h] MOV [2000h], AL Comments ;Clear Carry Flag ; Move contents of 4000h to Acc ; Move the Accumulator to 2000h

Execution Sequence: IP is the Program Counter in this example

Memory Map
16 Address Bus: 16 bits, 2 = 64K locations. Data Bus: 8 bits (1 byte)

FFFFh

64K possible locations, each one is 1 byte wide

0000h 1 byte

Simple Memory Devices (8K PROM & RAM)

(P)ROM RAM

Address A0..A12 8K bytes

Data D0..D7

Address A0..A12 8K bytes

Data D0..D7

CE Chip Enable Output Enable

OE Chip Enable

CE

OE WE

Output Enable Write Enable

Memory Read and Write Cycles

Hardware Control lines used by the CPU to Control reads and Writes to Memory Active low signal RD# asserted for a Read Cycle Active Low signal WR# indicates a write RD# and WR# signals supply timing information to memory device

Read Cycle
Processor puts out address on the Address Bus, e.g. 5 0000 0000 0000 0101 (A) Address RAM

8K bytes

Data D0..D7 Processor reads the contents of the data bus (C)

CE Chip Enable Output Enable Write Enable

OE WE

Processor asserts the Memory Read signal MEMR# - (B)

Read Cycle Timing Diagram

Clock

Address Bus

Program Address

Data Address

RD#

Data Bus

OpCode

Operand

Valid Data

Write Cycle
Processor puts out address on the Address Bus, e.g. 9 0000 0000 0000 1001 (A) Address RAM

8K bytes

Data D0..D7 Processor writes the data to the RAM via the data bus (C)

CE Chip Enable Output Enable Write Enable

OE WE

Processor asserts the Memory Write signal MEMW# - (B)

Write Cycle Timing Diagram

Clock

Address Bus

Program Address

Data Address

WR#

Data Bus

Write Data

Valid Data

Input and Output Cycles

Intel Architecture processors have an I/O address space, separate from memory (Code and Data) Allow I/O devices to be decoded separately from memory devices Use IOR# and IOW# signals for Input & Output Exercise: Draw Input & Output Cycles following the memory cycle examples

I/O Instructions
Separate I/O instructions cause the IOR# or IOW# signals to be asserted
MOV AL, (400Fh) ; instruction provides 16-bit address IN AL, 2Ch ; instruction provides an 8-bit address

Some processors only support a single address space - I/O devices are decoded in the memory map

Advantages of Memory Mapped I/O

I/O locations are read/written by normal instructions - no need for separate I/O instructions
Size of instruction set reduced

Memory manipulations can be performed directly on I/O locations No need for IOR# and IOW# pins

Advantages of Separate I/O Mapping

All locations in memory map are available for memory
No block removed for I/O

Smaller, faster instructions can be used for I/O Less Hardware decoding for I/O Easier to distinguish I/O accesses in assembly language Which mapping system is preferable? Why?

Processor with Multiple Memory Devices

ADDRESS BUS

ROM0 Processor DATA BUS

ROM1

RAM0

RAM1

CONTROL BUS Microprocessor System with ROM and RAM

How do you allow many memory devices to drive the same bus?

Device Selection and Data Buses

A PC board may have many memory devices, all attached to the same data bus When the processor reads data from the bus, it is essential that only one device drives data onto the bus The other memories must be electrically disconnected from the bus while the selected device drives it

Device Selection and Data Buses (2)

Use Address Decoding to ensure only one device is selected at a time Use Tristate buffers to disconnect unselected devices from the data bus Unselected devices have their outputs placed in the HIGH IMPEDANCE STATE its as if their outputs were switched off All outputs, except those of the selected device should be in the High Impedance state

TriState Buffers and Transceivers

Simplest buffers have an Input, an Output and an Enable Input
Enable signals may be active high or low

When Enable signal is active the output follows the input When the Enable signal is inactive the output of the buffer is effectively disconnected from the circuit When the output is in High Impedance other devices can drive the bus in question Bidirectional buffers (transceivers) are essentially two back-to back buffers

TriState Buffers and Transceivers(2)

CPUs, RAMs and ROMs all have tristate-able buffers on their data buses Microprocessors normally have tristate-able address and control buses as well Discrete buffer devices and transceivers can drive more devices (loads) than RAMs and ROMS 74AC244 and 74AC245 are typical buffers and transceivers

TriState Buffer (1/8 74AC244)

Input

Output

Enable#

Address Decoding
ADDRESS BUS

ROM0 Processor DATA BUS

ROM1

RAM0

RAM1

CONTROL BUS

Microprocessor System with ROM and RAM

How do you select just one memory device?

Address Decoding
Need external decoding hardware to ensure that only one device is accessed at any one time Simple techniques enable the Chip Enable of just one device, based on the address bus contents
Implement this system, consisting of 4 x (16K x 8) memories: ROM0 - 0000h - 3FFFh ROM1 - 4000h - 7FFFh RAM0 - 8000h - BFFFh RAM1 - C000h - FFFFh

Simple Address Decoding example

ffffh

RAM1
c000h bfffh

A15 /A15

RAM0
8000h 7fffh

A14 /A14

ROM1
4000h 3fffh

ROM0
0000h

/CS_ROM0

/CS_ROM1

/CS_RAM0

/CS_RAM1

Discrete Address Decoder

MPU
/MEMR /MEMW /IOR /IOW /OE

ROM0

/OE

ROM1

/OE /WE

RAM0

/OE /WE

RAM1

D0..D7 A0..A13

D0..D7 A0..A13

D0..D7 A0..A13

D0..D7 A0..A13

D0..D7 A0..A13

A15 A14

/CE

/CE

/CE

/CE

74AC138: 3-to-8 Decoder

Logic Diagram Select Inputs

A B C
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

138
E1 E2 E3

Outputs

Enable Inputs

Example: Fairchild 74AC138

Address Decoder With 74AC138

ffffh

RAM1
c000h bfffh 8000h 7fffh 4000h 3fffh A14 A B C

74AC138
/Y0 /Y1 /Y2 /Y3 /Y4 /CS_ROM0 /CS_ROM1 /CS_RAM0 /CS_RAM1 A15

RAM0 ROM1 ROM0

/E1 /E2 E3

/Y5 /Y6 /Y7

0000h

Address Decoder With 74AC138

MPU
/MEMR /MEMW /IOR /IOW /OE

ROM0

/OE

ROM1

/OE /WE

RAM0

/OE /WE

RAM1

D0..D7 A0..A13

D0..D7 A0..A13

D0..D7 A0..A13

D0..D7 A0..A13

D0..D7 A0..A13

A15 A14

/CE

/CE

/CE

/CE

74AC138
A B C /Y0 /Y1 /Y2 /Y3 /Y4 /E1 /E2 E3 /Y5 /Y6 /Y7

Cascading 138s for More Complex Decoding 74138 generates a unique output for a given binary input You can cascade 138s for more complex and precise decoding Each stage has a propagation delay associated with it
May affect your timing budget

Cascaded 74138s
SEL0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

A13 A14 A15

A B C

SEL1

138
E1 E2 E3 Logic High SEL5 SEL7 A0 A1 A2 A B C A0 A1 A2 A B C

138
MEMR Logic High MEMW E1 E2 E3

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

IN A000 IN A001 IN A002 IN A003 IN A004 IN A005 IN A006 IN A007 Logic High

138
E1 E2 E3

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

OUT OUT OUT OUT OUT OUT OUT OUT

A000 A001 A002 A003 A004 A005 A006 A007

Modern Decoding
Decoding in Motherboards is often done using Custom devices or PLDs Custom devices usually have 74138s as a Library part

(P)ROM

Address A0..A12 8K bytes

Data D0..D7

Memory Access Timing

CE OE

Address Input

CE# Data Out

Valid Data

ta Valid data available

Read Cycle (No Wait)

Address Input Valid Memory Address

MEMR# (= OE#)

CE#

Data Out

Valid Data

ta

Memory Cycle Time e.g. 20ns

Set up Time tsu

Example: ST EPROM 27C256

Read Cycle (Wait States)

A Wait state has been inserted in the processor cycle to allow the memory more time to respond Valid Memory Address Address Input

MEMR# (= OE#)

CE#

Data Out

Valid Data

ta

Memory Cycle Time e.g. 50ns

SECTION 2

8086/8088 MICROPROCESSORS; INTERRUPTS AND DMA

P BASED Computer Systems

Buses

Memory Systems
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) Static RAM (SRAM) Cache Read-Only (ROM) Flash Memory EEPROM

Microprocessor
8086 8088 80186 80286 80386 80486 Pentium Pentium Pro Pentium II

I/O System
Printer Hard disk drive Mouse CD-ROM Drive Keyboard Monitor Scanner

Memory
Transient Program Area (TPA) 640Kb System Area 384 Kb Extended Memory System (XMS) over 4MB
Extended Memory
15M bytes in the 80286 31M bytes in the 80386SL/SLC 63M bytes in the 80386EX 4095M bytes in the 80386DX, 80486, and Pentium 64G bytes in the Pentium Pro and Pentium II

System Area 384K bytes

1M bytes of real (conventional) memory

TPA 640K bytes

 Transient Program Area (TPA)

9FFFF
9FFF0

MSDOS Program Free TPA

08E30 08490 02530 01160 00700 00500 00400 00000

COMMAND.COM Device Drivers such as MOUSE.SYS MSDOS Programs IO.SYS Program DOS communications area BIOS communications area Interrupt Vectors

Transient Program Area (TPA)

Programs that control computer system (Operating Systems) Also contains data, drivers, and application programs Consists of RAM, ROM, EEPROM, and Flash Memory DOS controls memory organization and some I/O devices

Transient Program Area (TPA)

Interrupt Vectors contain addresses of interrupt service procedures BIOS (Basic I/O system) area controls I/O devices IO program allows use of keyboard, video display, printer, etc.

Command program controls operation of computer through keyboard

 System Area
FFFFF F0000 E0000

MSDOS Program BASIC language ROM (earlier PCs)

Free Area

C8000 C0000 B0000 A0000

Hard disk controller ROM LAN controller ROM Video BIOS ROM Video RAM (Text area)

Video RAM (Graphics area)

FFFF

I/O Expansion Area

I/O Space
Addresses I/O ports Up to 64K 8-bit devices

03F8

COM1 Floppy Disk Controller CGA Adapter LPT1 Hard disk Controller COM2 8255 (PIA) Timer (8253) Interrupt controller DMA Controller

03F0
03D0 0378 0320 02F8 0060 0040 0020 0000

Microprocessor
Data transfer between itself and memory or I/O system
Using data, address, and control buses

Simple arithmetic and logic operations

Add, Sub, Mul, Div, AND, OR, NOT, NEG, Shift, Rotate Data width: byte (8-bit), word (16-bit), and double word (32-bit)

Program flow via simple decisions

Zero, Sign, Carry, Parity, Overflow

Why is it so important?

Computer System Block Diagram

Address Bus Data Bus P
MWTC MRDC IOWC IORC

Read-only Memory ROM

Read/Write memory RAM

Keyboard

Printer

Computer System
Bus is a common group of wires for interconnection Address Bus: 16-bit for I/O and 20 to 36-bit for memory (20 for 8086)

Data Bus: 8 to 64-bit, the wider the bus, the more data can be transferred (16 for 8086)

Computer System
Control Bus: contains lines that selects the memory or I/O to perform a read or write operation
Four main control lines MRDC (memory read control) MWTC (memory write control) IORC (I/O read control) IOWC (I/O write control)

Intel Microprocessor Architecture

Operation Modes
Real: uses 1st M byte of memory in all versions Protected: uses all parts of memory in 80286 and above

Register Types
Program Visible: used during application programs Program Invisible: not directly addressable, but used by system

Program Visible Registers

4 Data Registers, 4 Pointer/Index Registers, 4-6 Segment Registers, Instruction Pointer, and Flags

 Compatibility is a successful strategy

Register A may be used as 8-bit (AH and AL), 16-bit (AX), and 32-bit (EAX) for the later Pentium processors

e.g. ADD AL, AH; ADD DX, CX; ADD ECX, EBX
Instructions only affect the intended part of a register Later P versions support earlier version codes

Some registers are Multipurpose, some are Special Purpose

Segment Registers generate memory addresses

Intel 8086/8088 Microprocessors

Intel 8086 and 8088 Microprocessors are the basis of all IBM-PC compatible computers
(8086 introduced in 1978, first IBM-PC released in 1981)

All Intel, AMD and other advanced microprocessors are based on and are compatible with the original 8086/8 At Power Up and Reset time, Pentiums, Athlons etc all look like 8086 processors

Intel 8086/8088 Microprocessors

Intel 8086 is a 16b microprocessor:
16b data registers, 16b ALU

Width of external data bus:

8086: 16b 8088: 8b

Width of external address bus: 16b+4b=20b Some techniques to optimise the CPU performance when its executing programs Segment: Offset memory model Little-Endian Data Format

8086/8088 (1)
Original IBM PC used 8088 microprocessor 8088 is similar to the 8086, but it has an external 8b data bus & only 4B-deep queue
For cost reduction reasons

We can consider 8086 and 8088 together PC clones often used 8086 for better performance 8-bit bus reduces performance, but meant cheaper computers

8086/8088 (2)
Remember the Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle? Fetching from EXTERNAL MEMORY is SLOW The 8086/8 used an instruction queue to speed up performance While the processor is decoding and executing an instruction, its bus interface can be reading new instructions, since at that time the bus is not actually in use

8086/8088 Functional Units

Execution Unit (EU)

Bus Interface Unit(BIU) Fetches Opcodes, Reads Operands, Writes Data

8086/8088 MPU

8086/8088 (3)
8086/8088 consists of two internal units
The execution unit (EU) - executes the instructions The bus interface unit (BIU) - fetches instructions, reads operands and writes results

The 8086 has a 6B prefetch queue The 8088 has a 4B prefetch queue

8086/8088 Internal Organisation

EU BIU Address Bus 20 bits AH BH CH DH SP SS BP ES DI IO IP BI Internal Communications Registers Bus Control 8088 Bus AL BL CL CS DL DS SUMMATION Data Bus

Temporary Registers Instruction Queue ALU

E U Control

Flags

BIU Elements
Instruction Queue: the next instructions or data can be fetched from memory while the processor is executing the current instruction
The memory interface is slower than the processor execution time so this speeds up overall performance

Segment Registers:
CS, DS, SS and ES are 16b registers Used with the 16b Base registers to generate the 20b address Allow the 8086/8088 to address 1MB of memory Changed under program control to point to different segments as a program executes

Instruction Pointer (IP) contains the Offset Address of the next instruction, the distance in bytes from the address given by the current CS register

8086/8088 20-bit Addresses

CS 16-bit Segnment Base Address 0000

IP 16-bit Offset Address

20-bit Physical Address

Exercise: 20-bit Addressing

1. CS contains A820h,IP contains CE24h. What is the resulting physical address?

2. CS contains B500h, IP contains 0024h. What is the resulting physical address?

8086/8 In Circuit (1)

8086/8 microprocessors need support circuits in a microcomputer system

8086/8 multiplex the address and data buses on the same pins
This saves pins but at a price:
Demultiplexing logic is needed to build up separate address and data buses to interface with RAMs and ROMs

MAXIMUM MODE GND AD14 AD13 AD12 AD11 AD10 AD9 AD8 AD7 AD6 AD5 AD4 AD3 AD2 AD1 AD0 NMI INTR CLK GND
20 21 1 40

MINIMUM MODE

Vcc AD15 A16,S3 A17,S4 A18,S5 A19,S6 /BHE,S7 MN,/MX /RD

8086

/RQ,/GT0 /RQ,/GT1 /LOCK /S2 /S1 /S0 QS0 QS1 /TEST READY RESET

HOLD HLDA /WR IO/M DT/R /DEN ALE /INTA

MAXIMUM MODE GND AD14 AD13 AD12 AD11 AD10 AD9 AD8 AD7 AD6 AD5 AD4 AD3 AD2 AD1 AD0 NMI INTR CLK GND
20 21 1 40

MINIMUM MODE
GND A14 A13 A12 A11 A10 A9 A8 AD7
1 40

MAXIMUM MODE Vcc A15 A16,S3 A17,S4 A18,S5 A19,S6 high MN,/MX /RD

MINIMUM MODE

Vcc AD15 A16,S3 A17,S4 A18,S5 A19,S6 /BHE,S7 MN,/MX /RD

/SS0

8086

/RQ,/GT0 /RQ,/GT1 /LOCK /S2 /S1 /S0 QS0 QS1 /TEST READY RESET

HOLD HLDA /WR IO/M DT/R /DEN ALE /INTA

AD6 AD5 AD4 AD3 AD2 AD1 AD0 NMI INTR CLK GND
20

8088

/RQ,/GT0 /RQ,/GT1 /LOCK /S2 /S1 /S0 QS0 QS1 /TEST READY
21

HOLD HLDA /WR IO/M DT/R /DEN ALE /INTA

RESET

8086/8 In Circuit (2)

In Maximum Mode the 8086/8 needs at least the following: 8288 Bus Controller, 8284A Clock Generator, 74HC373s and 74HC245s With the aid of these devices the 8086 begins to look like the ideal microprocessor we looked at earlier

i8086 Circuit - Maximum Mode

Vcc
S0# S1# S2# CLK MRDC# MWTC# AMWC# IORC# IOWC# AIOWC# INTA#

8284A Clock Generator RDY

CLK READY RESET

8288 Bus Controller

DEN DT/R# ALE

8086 CPU
MN/MX#

LE OE# BHE# AD15:AD0 A19:A16 INTR 74LS373 x3

A19:A0, BHE#

ADDR/DATA

DIR EN# 74LS245 74LS245 x2 x2

D15:D0

ADDR/Data

8086/8 Maximum Mode

In maximum mode, the 8288 uses a set of status signals (S0, S1, S2) to rebuild the normal bus control signals of the microprocessor
MRDC#, MWTC#, IORC#, IOWC# etc Equivalent to MEMR# etc

RESET# Signal
The Active low RESET# signal puts the 8086/8 into a defined state Clears the flags register, segment registers etc. Sets the effective program address to FFFF0h (CS=0F000h, IP=0FFF0h) 8086/8 Programs always start at FFFF0H after Reset has been asserted and removed Continues into latest generation CPUs

BHE# Signal (8086 Only)

The 8086 processor can address memory a byte at a time Its data bus is 16b wide
It uses the BHE# signal and A0 (sometimes called BLE#) to address bytes using its 16b bus

Use of BHE#/A0(BLE#)
Byte-Wide addressing (8088) FFFFF FFFFE FFFFD FFFFC A19..A1 ODD Addresses (8086) FFFFF FFFFD FFFFB FFFF9 A19..A1 EVEN Addresses (8086) FFFFE FFFFC FFFFA FFFF8

00002 00001 00000

00005 00003 00001

00004 00002 00000

D15:D8 BHE# A0/BLE#

D7:D0

Use of BHE#/BLE#
BHE# 0 0 1 A0/BLE# 0 1 0 Selection Whole word (16-bits) High byte to/from odd address Low byte to/from even address

No selection

ALE and Address/data Bus Multiplexing

8086/8 Multiplexes the Address and Data signals onto the same set of pins Need off-chip logic to separate the signals
Transparent latches designed just for address demultiplexing

ALE and 74HC373 Transparent Latch

Clock Address/ Data Bus Address Time Data Time

ALE

Output of 74HC373

Microcomputer AddressBus

74HC373 or equivalent

Address/ Data Bus

In0:In7

Q0:Q7

System Address Bus

ALE

LE OE# TriState Control signal, OE#, shown connected to GND for simplicity

Use of ALE (Address Latch Enable)

ALE is used with an external latch (74HC373) to demultiplex the address and data lines 74HC373 is transparent when its LE input (connected to ALE) is high When ALE goes low, the 373 holds the last data until ALE goes high again

8288 Bus Controller and Bus Transceivers

8288 Bus Controller DEN# DT/R# EN# DIR DIR CPU [D15:D8] 74HC245 Buffered [D15:D8] 8288 Bus Controller also generates Direction and Enable signals for BiDirectional Transeivers Supports Buffering the System Data Bus

EN# DIR CPU [D7:D0] 74HC245 Buffered [D7:D0]

To Memory and I/O Systems

8086 Read Cycle

T1 CLK /S0, /S1, /S2 A16..A19, /BHE
S3..S6 001 or 101

T2

T3

T4

Address

Status

ALE AD0..AD15 A0..A19 DT/R DEN /MRDC or /IORC

Address float Valid Data float

Valid Address

8086 Write Cycle

T1 CLK /S0, /S1, /S2 A16..A19, /BHE
S3..S6 010 or 110

T2

T3

T4

Address

Status

ALE AD0..AD15 A0..A19 DT/R DEN /MWTC or /IOWC

Address Valid Data

Valid Address

8086 Read Cycle (1 Wait State)

T1 CLK /S0, /S1, /S2 A16..A19, /BHE
S3..S6 001 or 101

T2

T3

Tw

T4

Address

Status

ALE 8284 RDY READY AD0..AD15 A0..A19 DT/R DEN /MRDC or /IORC
Address float Valid Data float

Valid Address

8086/8088 Summary
First Generation (introduced June 1978) One of the first 16b processors on the market 16b internal registers 16/8b external data bus

20b address bus (1MB addressable)

Used in 1st generation IBM PCs (1981)

80186/80188
Evolution of 8086/8088 80186/80188 Increased instruction set On-chip system components (Clock generator, DMA, Interrupt, Timers) Unsuccessful in PCs Popular in embedded systems

Interrupts
Used to Halt the normal flow of instructions Exceptions can be due to Hardware or Software Hardware Interrupts are asynchronous to the processor Could be asserted by an external device requesting action, e.g. a port ready to transfer data Interrupts can be globally masked by the processors Interrupt Enable Flag (IE or I) IE is set by STI and reset by CLI (or equivalent)

Maskable & Non Maskable Interrupts

Maskable interrupts can be enabled/disabled using a flag (usually in the flags register Non Maskable Interrupts (NMI) are top priority interrupts that cant be masked out NMIs often used for Parity Errors, Power fails etc

NMI Example
Power Fail Monitor NMI

Parity Error Detector

MPU INTR

I/O Device

Interrupts
Main Program
Interrupt Receiv ed

ISR

Complete Current Instruction PushFlags Register onto Stack Push Instruction Pointer onto Stack Clear Interrupt Enable Falg Trap to Start of ISR

Push Registers onto the Stack

BODY of the ISR

Operations shown in boxes are carried automatically by MPU hardware

Pop Registers from the Stack

Pop flags from the stack Pop Instruction Pointer from the stack Resume at restored IP address

Return From Interrupt

Main Program Resumes

Interrupt with Fixed ISR

Interrupt with Fixed ISR

Vectored Interrupt

Vectored Interrupt

DMA

Determining Source of Interrupt

Real Mode Memory Addressing

Real mode memory

Location = Segment + Offset

Segment address located in a segment register; always appended with 0H Segments always have length of 64 Kb

FFFFF

1FFFF 1F000

Offset = F000

64K byte segment

10000

1000

00000

Real Mode Memory Addressing cont

Offset or displacement selects location within 64 Kb of segment e.g. 1000:2000 gives location 12000H

Default Segment and Address Registers

e.g. code segment and instruction pointer CS:IP and stack segment and stack pointer SS:SP

Protected Mode Memory Addressing

Accessed via segment and offset address, but
Segment register contains a selector Selector selects a descriptor from descriptor table Descriptor: memory segment location, length, and access right

Addressing Modes
Data Addressing Modes Intel family supports 8 data addressing modes

Modes differ in the location of data and address calculations All modes involve physical address generation

Addressing Modes cont

Consider MOV opcode as example: MOV AX, BX
Opcode or operation code tells P which operation to perform Source operand is to the right Destination operand is to the left

Addressing Modes
Register Addressing: MOV CX, DX
Copy content of source register to destination register Source and destination must be of the same size

Immediate Addressing: MOV AL, 22H

Transfer the immediate data into destination register This is called constant data, but data transferred from a register is a variable data

Addressing Modes
Direct Addressing: MOV CX, LIST
Move a byte or word between a memory location and a register Memory address, instead of data, appears in the instruction

Addressing Modes
Register Indirect Addressing: MOV AX, [BX]
Transfer data between a register and a memory location addressed by a register Sometimes need using special assembler directives BYTE PTR, WORD PTR, DWORD PTR, when size is not clear
FOR example MOV DWORD PTR [DI], 10H instead of MOV [DI], 10H

Addressing Modes
Base-plus-index Addressing: MOV [BX+DX], CL
Transfer data between a register and a memory location addressed by a base register and an index register

Register Relative Addressing: MOV AX, [BX+4]

Move data between a register and a memory location addressed specified by a register plus a displacement

Addressing Modes
Base relative-plus-index Addressing: MOV AX, ARRAY[BX+DI]
Transfer data between a register and a memory location specified by a base and index register plus a displacement Another example is MOV AX, [BX+DI+4]

Addressing Modes
Scaled-index Addressing:
Not used by 8086 (used by 80386 and later processors)

Program Memory-Addressing Modes

Three forms, used with JMP and CALL instructions Direct Program Memory Addressing: JMP Label
Like GOTO or GOSUB in BASIC language Allows going to any location in memory for next instruction

Program Memory-Addressing Modes

Relative Program Memory Addressing: JMP [2]
Jump relative to instruction pointer (IP)

Indirect Program Memory Addressing: JMP AX

Jump to current code segment location addressed by content of AX Other examples: JMP [DI+2[] and JMP [BX]

Stack Memory-Addressing Modes

Stack is a LIFO (last-in, first-out memory) Data are place by PUSH and removed by POP
Stack memory is maintained by stack segment register (ss) and stack pointer (sp) When a word is pushed, high 8 bits are stored at SP-1 low 8 bits are stored at SP-2, the SP is decremented by 2 When a word is poped, low 8 bits are removed from location addressed by SP, high 8 bits are removed from location addressed by SP+1, then SP is incremented by 2

Instruction Encoding
Assembler translates assembly code into machine language Machine language is the native binary code P understands

D W Opcode

First byte of instruction: opcode

First 6 bits of instruction are the binary opcode Direction bit (D) determines the direction of data flow Width bit (W) determines data size: 0 for byte, 1 for word and double word

 Second byte of instruction: MOD-REG-R/M

MOD REG R/M

MOD specifies addressing mode for instruction and whether displacement is present If MOD=11, then register addressing mode, else memory addressing mod In register addressing mode, R/M specifies a register In memory addressing mode, R/M selects a mode from table If D=1, data flow to REG from R/M, if D=0 data flow to R/M from REG

Intel Family Instruction Set

PUSH and POP for stack operations

Load Effective Address

LEA loads a 16- or 32-bit register with offset address LDS, LES, LFS, LGS, and LSS load a 16- or 32-bit register with offset address and a corresponding segment register DS, ES, FS, GS, or SS with a segment address

String Data Transfer

Uses destination index (DI) and source index (SI) registers Two modes: auto-increment (D=0) and autodecrement (D=1)

Intel Family Instruction Set cont

By default DI access data in extra segment and SI in data segment LODS loads AL, AX, or EAX with data addressed by SI in data segment and increments or decrements SI STOS stores AL, AX or EAX at the extra segment addressed by DI and increments or decrements DI REP STOS repeats the instruction the number of times stored in CX, i.e. terminates when CX=0

Intel Family Instruction Set cont(2)

MOVS is the only instruction that transfers data between memory locations INS transfers data from I/O device into extra segment addressed by DI; I/O address is in DX register OUTS transfers data from data segment memory addressed by SI to an I/O device addressed by DX
For inputting or outputting a block of data INS and OUTS are repeated

Intel Family Instruction Set cont(3)

Miscellaneous Data Transfer Instructions
XCHG exchange contents of a register with any other register or memory location IN and OUT instructions perform I/O operations

Two I/O addressing modes: fixed-port and variable port

Intel Family Instruction Set

Segment Override Prefix
May be added to any instruction to deviate from default segment

Arithmetic and Logic Instructions

ADD simply adds two numbers and sets the flags ADC adds also the carry flag (C) INC adds one to a register or memory location

Arithmetic and Logic Instructions

SUB subtracts two and sets the flags SBB subtract-with-borrow also subtracts (C) from difference

DEC subtracts one from a register or memory location CMP is a subtract that only changes the flag bits; this is normally followed by a conditional jump instruction

Arithmetic and Logic Instructions cont

Multiplication can be unsigned (MUL) or signed (IMUL) Division can also be unsigned (DIV) or signed (IDIV) Basic logic instructions are AND, OR, XOR, NOT

TEST is like CMP, but for bits zero flag Z=1 if bit is 0 and Z=0 if bit is 1

Arithmetic and Logic Instructions cont(2)

TEST performs AND operation, so TEST AL,1 tests the first bit and TEST AL,128 tests the last bit of a byte in AL NOT is logical inversion or ones complement

NEG is arithmetic sign inversion or twos complement

Intel Family Instruction Set

Shift and Rotate Instructions
SHL and SHR are logical shift left and right that insert 0 and put one bit in the carry flag C SAL and SAR are arithmetic shift operations; SAL is similar to SHL, but SAR is different than SHR because it inserts the sign bit instead of 0 Rotate instructions rotate data from one end to another, ROL (rotate left) and ROR (rotate right), or through the carry flag (RCL and RCR)

Intel Family Instruction Set cont

String Data Comparing
String scan instruction SCAS compares register A with memory Compare string instruction CMPS compares two memory locations