Research Methodology

Mrs. Chaitali A.Laulkar

Motivation
To enable researchers, irrespective of their discipline, in developing the most appropriate methodology for their research studies To make them familiar with the art of using different research methods and techniques.

Syllabus
Unit - I Understand the Research Process. Unit - II Problem Identification and hypothesis formulation. Unit - III Research Design Unit - IV Methods, Tools and Techniques Unit - V- Data Processing and Data Analysis Unit - VI Reporting Research

Evolution of Research Methodology

What is Research ?
Research is : Study whatever everybody has done and think whatever nobody has thought An activity which critically evaluate some problem. Undertaking structured investigation which hopefully result in greater understanding of the chosen interest area. Ultimately this investigation become available to the public. To collect and analyze the data in specified field with the purpose of proving your theory.

Definition of Research
The systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions. Investigation using Scientific procedure , by searching again and again to find out the truth.

What is Research ?
Research is carried out in order to : Get a result with scientific methods objectively not subjectively. Solve problems, verify the application of theories, and lead on to new insight. Enlighten both researchers and any interested reader.

What research is Not..

Research is not information gathering. Gathering information from resource such as books and magazines isnt research No contribution to new knowledge Research is not the transportation of the facts. Merely transferring facts from one resource to another doesnt constitute research. No contribution to knowledge although this might make existing knowledge more accessible. Applying existing techniques to a new problem Developing a oneshot solution to a problem

Scope of Research
Premises form the basis upon which this research rests. Delimitations define the scope of the research. Premise: A statement that is assumed to be true and from which a conclusion can be drawn. Delimitation : A line that indicates a boundary. Scope of investigation defines where and when the study was conducted and who the subject were. The scope sets the delimitations and establishes the boundaries of the study.

Limitation of Research
Limitation is a phrase or aspect of the investigation which may affect the result adversely but over which you have no control. Limitation must be stated honestly.

Significance of Research
Research indicates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical habits of thinking and organization. Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system. Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of business and industry. Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relation. To those students who are to write a masters or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure.

Significance of Research
To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood. To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights. To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and creative work. To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalizations of new theories.

Who can do Research ?

Knowledge is not anybodys personal property Excellence is not Expensive Dont need a Ph.D. Degree to be a Researcher

Research : A Journey
A strong foundation for the research is the querying attitude. Everything and anything is questionable and these questions make way for a research. Knowledge in the arena of proposed research topic, Analytical/ Numerical/Experimental skills are the prerequisites for a researcher. The hard work, consistency and immense patience are a few desirable qualities of a researcher apart from the skills and knowledge . A researcher needs to be committed to the research work to find fruits in the research.

Research Characteristics
Originate with question or problem. Require clear articulation of a goal. Follow a specific plan or procedure. Often divides main problem into sub problems. Guided by specific problem , question or hypothesis. Accept certain critical assumptions. Require collection and interpretation of data. Cyclical in nature.

Sources of Research Problem

Observation Literature reviews Professional conferences Experts

Objective and Goals of Research

The objective of research to find the answers to certain questions through the application of scientific procedure. The goal of a research process is to produce new knowledge which takes three forms : Exploratory :
To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it. Research which structures and identifies new Problems.

Descriptive
To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group.

Diagnostic
To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else

Hypothesis Testing
To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables

Objectives of Research
To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it - Studies with this objective in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group - Studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else - Studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables - Such studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies.

Exploratory Research
also termed as formulative research studies The main purpose
formulating a problem for more precise investigation of developing the working hypotheses from an operational point of view The major emphasis is on the discovery of ideas and insights

Research: A Motivation

Research : A Motivation
Intrinsic motivation - The love of the work itself. Intrinsic motivations include: interest, challenge, learning, meaning, purpose, creative flow. Research has shown that high levels of intrinsic motivation are strongly linked to outstanding creative performance.

Research : A Motivation
Extrinsic motivation - Rewards for good work or punishments for poor work. Extrinsic motivations include: money, fame, awards, praise, status, opportunities, deadlines, commitments, bribes, threats. Research shows that too much focus on extrinsic motivation can block creativity.

Research : A Motivation
Personal motivation - Individual values, linked to personality. Examples include: power, harmony, achievement, generosity, public recognition, authenticity, knowledge, security, pleasure. Each of us prioritizes some values over others. understanding your own values and those of people around you is key to motivating yourself and influencing others.

Research : A Motivation
Interpersonal motivation - Influences from other people. Much of our behavior is a response to people around us, such as: copying, rebellion, competition, collaboration, commitment, encouragement.

Research : A Motivation

Research : A Motivation
Motivation leading to research for search of ways out of a situation

Phases of Research
Idea-generating phase Problem-definition phase Procedures-design phase Observation phase Data-analysis phase Interpretation phase Communication phase

What Research Methodology is ?

The prescription of the acceptable ways of doing research Defines: How to proceed; How to measure progress What constitutes a success

Why should we follow a methodology?

Research does not begin with the results!!! Identification of needs Creation of ideas Formalization of ideas Testing Dissemination Refinement

Types of Research

Descriptive Research
Designed to describe something e.g. 1. characteristics of users of a given product ; The degree to which product use varies with income , age , gender or other characteristics. 2. The number who saw specific television show. It includes only collect data for definite purpose. Includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. Objective and understanding should be clear and specific. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods. Often use in social science and business research. Researcher has no control over the variables, he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Example : Frequency of shopping, Preferences of people,etc.

Analytical Research
Researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.

Applied (Action) Research

Finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial / business organization. Aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem. Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution or marketing research or evaluation research are examples of applied research.

Fundamental Research
Concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory. Gathering knowledge for knowledges sake is termed pure or basic research. Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge. Research studies, concerning human behavior carried on with a view to make generalizations about human behavior.

Quantitative Research
Objective is: 1. To quantify data and generalize results from a sample to the population of interest. 2. To measure the incidence of various views and opinions in a chosen sample. 3. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ Mathematical Models, Theories and/or Hypothesis pertaining to phenomena. Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Expression of a property or quantity in numerical term. Quantitative research is more scientific.

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research, concerned with phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. e.g. why people think or do certain things ? e.g.find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution. Aim is to discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. This type of research is specially important in the behavioral sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behavior. This type of research can analyze the various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular thing. It is more naturalistic and more subjective. Qualitative research produces observations, notes, and descriptions of behavior and motivation. Research methods in this category include: Interviews, Focus groups, Reviews, Observation.

Conceptual Research
Related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. Researcher breaks down a theorem or concept into its constituent parts to gain a better understanding of the deeper philosophical issue concerning the theorem. Popular method of research in social sciences, and philosophy and psychology.

Empirical Research
It relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment. It is experimental type of research. The researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results.

Exploratory Research
When a researcher has a limited amount of experience with or knowledge about a research issue, exploratory research is a useful preliminary step. Exploratory research is undertaken when few or no previous studies exist. The aim is to look for patterns, hypotheses or ideas that can be tested and will form the basis for further research. The objective of exploratory research is to identify key issues and key variables.

Exploratory Research
Researchers conduct exploratory research for three interrelated purposes: (1) diagnosing a situation, (2) screening alternatives, and (3) discovering new ideas.
1. Diagnosing a situation : when an advertising agency got an account for a new coffee containing chicory, the firm began the research process with exploratory research to diagnose the situation. The researchers learned that almost nobody had heard of chicory. It wasnt being used, and nobody seemed to know how to use it. This led to the hypothesis that the advertising could portray the chicory ingredient any way the client wanted. 2. Screening Alternatives : When several opportunities, such as new product ideas, arise at once, but budgets dont allow trying all possible options, exploratory research may be used to determine the best alternatives. 3. Discovering New ideas : Marketers often conduct exploratory research to generate ideas for new products, advertising copy, and so on.

Exploratory Research
Exploratory research might involve a literature search or conducting focus group interviews. Exploratory research is broad in focus and rarely provides definite answers to specific research issues. Exploratory studies can be extremely valuable in social research. They are essential when a researcher is breaking new ground and they typically yield new insights into a topic for research. e.g. In the business environment might be an exploratory study of a new management technique in order to brief a management team. Situations : 1. Quality of service is declining and we dont know why? 2. Would people be interested in our new product idea?

Categories of Exploratory Research

Experience surveys :
Researchers may discuss the concepts with top executives and knowledgeable individuals, both inside and outside the company, who have had personal experience in the field. This constitutes an informal experience survey.

Secondary data analysis:

Another economical and quick source of background information is trade literature. Searching through such material is exploratory research with secondary data.

Case studies : Obtain information from one or a few situations that are similar to the researchers problem situation. Pilot studies : A pilot study is a research project that involves sampling, but it relaxes the rigorous standards used to obtain precise, quantitative estimates from large, representative samples.

Descriptive Research
Descriptive research seeks to provide an accurate description of observations of a phenomena. Descriptive research can be used to identify and classify the elements or characteristics of the subject, e.g. number of days lost because of industrial action. e.g. The object of the collection of census data is to accurately describe basic information about a national population at a particular point in time. Situations : 1. Did last years product recall have an impact on our companys share price? 2. What have been the trends in organisational downsizing over the past ten years?

What is deterring your research?

Age? Are you suffering from Low Self Confidence? Are you getting boredom of your research and learning ? Enjoy your learning and research No Matter You can soon become an unchallenged Champion.. But of course with Hard Work and Dedication

Research Approaches
Quantitative Approach
Inferential Approach
The purpose of this approach is to form a data base from which to infer characteristics or relationships of population. This usually means survey research where a sample of population is studied (questioned or observed) to determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred that the population has the same characteristics

Experimental Approach
It is characterized by much greater control over the research environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other variables.

Simulation approaches
This approach involves the construction of an artificial environment within which relevant information and data can be generated. This permits an observation of the dynamic behavior of a system (or its sub-system) under controlled conditions.

Research Approach
Qualitative Approach
This approach is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and behavior. Research in such a situation is a function of researchers insights and impressions. Such an approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form or in the form which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques and depth interviews are used.

Research Method Vs Research Methodology

Research Method :
All those methods/techniques that are used for conduction of research. All those methods which are used by the researcher during the course of studying his research problem are termed as research methods. Groups of Research Methods
In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the collection of data. These methods will be used where the data already available are not sufficient to arrive at the required solution. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing relationships between the data and the unknowns. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained.

Research Method Vs Research Methodology

Research Methodology
It is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. We study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic behind them. Research methodology not only talk of the research methods but also consider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and explain why we are using a particular method or technique and why we are not using others so that research results are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others.
Why a research study has been undertaken ? How the research problem has been defined ? what way and why the hypothesis has been formulated ? what data have been collected ? what particular method has been adopted ? why particular technique of analyzing data has been used ?

Importance of knowing How Research is done ?

The knowledge of methodology provides good training specially to the new research worker and enables him to do better research. It helps him to develop disciplined thinking or a bent of mind to observe the field objectively. It will inculcate the ability to evaluate and use research results with reasonable confidence. When one knows how research is done, then one may have the satisfaction of acquiring a new intellectual tool which can become a way of looking at the world and of judging every day experience. It helps the consumer of research results to evaluate them and enables him to take rational decisions.

Steps of Research Process

Formulating the research problem. Extensive literature survey. Developing the hypothesis. Preparing the research design. Determining sample design. Collecting the data. Execution of the project. Analysis of data. Hypothesis testing. Generalizations and interpretation, and Preparation of the report or presentation of the results

Research Process

1. Formulate Research Problem

One or more sentences indicating the goal, purpose, or overall direction of the study. Steps involved in formulating the Problem stmt.
Understanding the problem thoroughly, and Rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.

1. Formulate Research Problem

Two ways of stating the problem
Research problems: typically a rather general overview of the problem with just enough information about the scope and purpose of the study to provide an initial understanding of the research Research statements and/or questions: more specific, focused statements and questions that communicate in greater detail the nature of the study.

Quantitative problems
Specific Closed Static Outcome oriented Use of specific variables

Qualitative problems
General Open Evolving Process oriented

2. Extensive Literature Survey

The abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem.

3. Development of Working Hypothesis

Hypotheses
Hypotheses are tentative statements of the expected relationships between two or more variables

Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the problem. It also indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.

3. Development of Working Hypothesis

Reasons for using hypotheses
To provide specific focus. To provide for the testing of the relationships between variables. To direct the investigation. To allow the investigator to confirm or not confirm relationships. To provide a framework for reporting the results and explanations deriving from them. When supported, provides empirical evidence of the predictive nature of the relationships between variables. To provide a useful framework for organizing and summarizing the results and conclusions.

4. Preparing the Research Design

The designing decisions happen to be in respect of:
What is the study about ? Why is the study being made ? Where will the study be carried out ? What type of data is required ? Where can the required data be found ? What periods of time will the study include ? What will be the sample design ? What techniques of data collection will be used ? How will the data be analyzed ? In what style will the report be prepared ? What is the cost of Project ?

5. Determining Sample Design

All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a universe or population. A complete enumeration of all the items in the population is known as a census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not be true as this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy. The sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking into consideration the nature of the inquiry and other related factors.

5. Determining Sample Design

Types of Sample designs
Deliberate Sampling
This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate selection of particular units of the universe for constituting a sample which represents the universe.
When population elements are selected for inclusion in the sample based on the ease of access, it can be called convenience sampling. In Judgment sampling the researchers judgment is used for selecting items which he considers as representative of the population

Simple Random Sampling

This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or probability sampling where each and every item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has the same probability of being selected.

5. Determining Sample Design

Types of Sample designs
Systematic Sampling
In such a design the selection process starts by picking some random point in the list and then every nth element is selected until the desired number is secured.

Stratified Sampling
If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a representative sample. If the items selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling the entire procedure, first stratification and then simple random sampling, is known as stratified random sampling.

5. Determining Sample Design

Types of Sample designs
Quota Sampling
The size of the quota for each stratum is generally proportionate to the size of that stratum in the population. Quota sampling is thus an important form of non-probability sampling. Quota samples generally happen to be judgment samples rather than random samples.

Cluster Sampling and Area Sampling

Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the sample. The sample size must often be larger than the simple random sample to ensure the same level of accuracy. The clustering approach can, however, make the sampling procedure relatively easier and increase the efficiency of field work, specially in the case of personal interviews. Under area sampling we first divide the total area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical clusters, then a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected, and all units in these small areas are included in the sample.

5. Determining Sample Design

Types of Sample designs
Multi-stage sampling
This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling. This technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical area like an entire country. Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary sampling units such as states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within towns. If the technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling procedure is described as multi-stage random sampling.

Sequential sampling
ultimate size of the sample is not fixed in advance but is determined according to mathematical decisions on the basis of information yielded as survey progresses. This design is usually adopted under acceptance sampling plan in the context of statistical quality control.

6. Collecting the Data

Data can collected through two types of information.
Primary Data
Primary data is the data collected for the first time to serve some specific purpose. Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. Primary data can collected by two ways
Experiments By Observation Through personal interview Through Telephone interview By mailing of questionnaires Through schedules Survey

6. Collecting the Data

Secondary Information
Government department Magazines Annual Report Bibliography

7. Execution of the Project

This steps should be taken to ensure that the survey is under statistical control so that the collected information is in accordance with the pre-defined standard of accuracy.
Proper answer to the question Occasional field checks Proper training to the field officers

8. Analysis of Data
After collecting the data the researcher turns to the task of evaluating it.
Editing : Is the procedure which improves the quality of data. Coding : Categories of data are transformed into symbols. Tabulation : Data put in form of tables. Statistical Calculation

8. Analysis of Data
Researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories. Approach to de-synthesizing data, informational, and/or factual elements to answer research questions Categories of Data Analysis
Narrative (e.g. laws, arts) Descriptive (e.g. social sciences) Statistical/mathematical (pure/applied sciences) Audio-Optical (e.g. telecommunication) Others

8. Analysis of Data
Goal of an Data Analysis
To explain cause-and-effect phenomena To relate research with real-world event To predict/forecast the real-world Phenomena based on research Finding answers to a particular problem Making conclusions about real-world event based on the problem Learning a lesson from the problem

9. Hypothesis Testing
Do the facts support the formulated hypothesis? Or it happens to be contrary? Various tests
Chi-Square test T-test F-test

10. Generalization and Interpretation

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation.

11. Preparation of the Report or Thesis

Layout of Report
Preliminary Pages
Report should carry title and date Acknowledgements Foreword. Table of contents List of tables List of graphs List of charts, if any, given in the report.

11. Preparation of the Report or Thesis

Main Text
Introduction
It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.

Summary of finding
After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be summarized.

Main Report
The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and broken-down into readily identifiable sections.

Conclusion
Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.

11. Preparation of the Report or Thesis

End Matter
Appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography,
List of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end.

Index should also be given specially in a published research report.

11. Preparation of the Report or Thesis

Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague expressions such as it seems, there may be, and the like. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the information more clearly and forcibly. Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced in conducting research operations may as well be stated.

Criteria of good research

The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as possible. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

Qualities of good research

Good research is systematic:
Research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.

Good research is logical:

Research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making.

Good research is empirical:

Research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results.

Good research is replicable:

Results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

Principals of Research ethics

Discuss intellectual property frankly Be conscious of multiple roles Follow informed-consent rules Respect confidentiality and privacy
Discuss the limits of confidentiality Know federal and state law

Best course of action

Take practical security measures. Think about data sharing before research begins Understand the limits of the Internet.

Tap into ethics resources

The Belmont Report

1. Identifying research objectives

Think in detail about these three important questions: 1. What is this research work for? 2. What am I supposed to do during my research work? 3. What am I supposed to achieve? Have a clearly set-out statement of what you want to achieve in your research work. It should be consistent with the research problem you have formulated.