UNIT-1

Unit-1 Introduction of computer

Que.1 What is computer? Ans. The term computer originated from the word compute or calculate. A computer is electronic device which can store data, process data and gives output. The computer is a multiple purpose programmable electronic machine that accepts raw facts, may be unorganized, which it processes and manipulates into meaningful information which may be used to take decisions. A computer system is a combination of five elements. 1 Software 2 Hardware 3 User 4 Procedure 5 Data

Function of CPU
Secondary Storage Device

Input Unit

Output Unit

 The CPU takes data and instructions from the storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided. The results is then sent back to the storage unit. It can be called as the brain of any computer system. In a fraction of a second, the operation is performed. The unit of speed given below: Millis Second =10-3 Sec. Micro Second= 10-6 Sec. Nano Second= 10-9 Sec. Pico Second= 10-12 Sec. It is just like a human brain that takes all major decisions, makes all sorts of calculations & directs different parts of the computer by activating and controlling the operations. The CPU consists of the following: 1. Arithmetic Logical Unit (A.L.U.) 2. Control Unit (C.U.) 3. Memory Unit (Primary Memory and Secondary Memory) 4.Processor

Function of C.P.U.

1.A.L.U.
It performs all the arithmetic and logical computation such as addition (+) subtraction (-), multiplication(*),divisions(/) as well as logical comparisons.

C.U. (Control Unit)

It acts as a manager which controls all activities being carried out within the computer. It does not perform any actual processing on the data, the control unit act as a central nervous system, for the other components of the computer system. It manages and co-ordinates the entire compute system. It obtains instructions form the programmed stored is main is main memory, interprets the instructions and issues the signals

Memory Unit
It stores the data and instructions, as well as output after processing. It has two types: PRIMARY MEMORY

SECONDARY MEMORY

PRIMARY MEMORY
Primary memory is an integral part of the computer system and is accessible

directly by the processing unit. RAM (Random Access Memory) : is a example of primary memory. When computer switched OFF the contents of the primary memory is LOST. This is the reason of saving all works on the storage disk while working on computer. The amount of RAM in a computer tremendously affects the speed and power of the computer. The measurement unit of memory unit is byte. In this way we can say that ram is volatile memory ROM (Read only Memory): It is also primary memory. It holds permanent data or instruction when the power supply is out nothing is waste when switched off. The information is permanently recorded in it. It contains instructions to get the computer started when is switched on. It also holds the instructions for control of the various peripheral unit of computer, such as input unit, output unit etc. It is non-volatile memory.

 PROM ( Programmable Read Only Memory) EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM) EEPROM (Electronic Erasable Programmable ROM CACHE MEMORY: It is an extremely fast, small memory between CPU and RAM. It act as high speed buffer between CPU and main memory and used to temporarily store very active data and instructions during processing. It is faster then the main memory.

Secondary Memory
Secondary such as floppy disks magnetic disks, etc. is located external to the computer. The memory is more expensive than the secondary memory because this, the size of primary memory is less than that of secondary memory.

Magnetic Storage
FLOPPY DISK: It is portable storage device. It is commonly used to move files between different computers, load new programs onto the computer, or store backup of data. It can store 1.44MB of data and is usually of 3.5 size. It can be damage easily. It can be reused any number of times.

Hard disk
It is not a single flexible disk, but a stock of metal disks sealed in a box. The hard dish is usually a permanent part of the computer where most of your files are saved. The storage capacity of a hard disk can be several giga bytes ranging form 1GB to 160GB + etc. It is rewritable disk. It is very reliable as compared to floppies. It can store very large data. You can access any information in a fraction of second.

Optical Storage
COMPACT DISC(CD):- It contains digital information, which can be read, but cannot be rewritten. It can hold vast amounts of information such as full motion videos, animation, music, text etc. It is very portable. It can store 650-700 MB It is most reliable for long time as compared floppies. DVD (Digital Versatile Disc) it is used to store movies or music, and played back on your computer as well as on your television screen. It is similar to a CD but it has a larger capacity. It can store about 17GB of disk. They are not rewritable.

Software
Software are set of instructions or programs which are given to computers so that it works and does the task. These are intangible components of a computer which makes the tangible components work. It can be classified into two generated categories.

Types of software
Software

Application Software

System Software

Application Software
It is a set of programs, which are written to perform specific tasks of the users of computers such as Accounts, Payroll etc. These software are developed in high level language to help the user to get the computer perform the tasks. Application software package are called application programs and the programmers who prepares application software are refried to as application programmers. There are millions of applications, ranging from simple applications such as word processing, spread sheet , Database software, Entertainment software graphic software etc.

System Software
It is used for developing or running a computer system. It is controls all processing activities and makes sure that the resources and the power of the computer are used in most efficient manner. It consist of following software: 1. Operating System 2 Language Processors

Function of Operating System

It assigns processor to task. It manages memory and other storage areas. It act as command interpreter. File management Input/output management. Establishing data security & integrity. Maintains account of processor time for billing purposes. Provides data and time services etc.

Language Processors
1 TRANSLATORS As digital computer accepts digits and characters as input, however this input is not understable by the computer. To make the computer understable it the input has to be conversed into machine language. There are three basic type of translators. 1 Compilers 2 Interpreters 3 Assemblers.

Compilers
A complier is a software that will accept the total program code as input and then converts it into machine code for every language usually there is as compliers which interprets and converts the program in that language into machine understandable code.
HLL Compiler Object Code

Interpreters
It also does the same task of converting the program code into machine code like compliers but it is different from the compliers in sense the compilers takes the complete program as input as input, but interpreter takes the program code line by line and converts it into machine code.
Assembly Language Program Assembler Object Code

Characteristics of a Computer
Speed: As you know computer can work very fast . It takes only few seconds for calculations that we take hours to complete. The weather forecasts that you see everyday on TV is the result of compilation and analysis of huge amount of data on temperature, humidity, pressure etc. from various places processed by computers. It takes only few minutes for the computer to process this huge amount of data and give the result. You will be surprised to know that computer can perform several millions of instructions per second; therefore we determine the speed of computer in terms of microsecond(10-6 part of a second) or nano second(10-9) etc.

Accuracy
Suppose some one calculates faster but commits a lot of errors in computing; such result is useless. But computer can do all works with high accuracy. Suppose you want to divide 15 by 7. You can work up to 2 Decimal place and say the quotient is 2.14. In this way we can say that it can give accurate data.

Diligence
A computer is free from monotony, tiredness, lack of concentration. It can work for hours without making any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a computer will perform every calculation with the same accuracy. Due to this capability it is better than human beings in routine type of work.

 It means capability to perform completely different types of operation. You may your computer to prepare pay slips, next moment you may use it for inventory management or to prepare electricity bills or prepare accounts etc. It is highly versatile. Computers can communicate with other computes and can receive and send data in various forms like text, sound video, graphics etc. This ability to communicate to another computer has led to development of computer network as internet etc.

Versatility

Storage
The Computer has an in-built memory to hold in process data and has devices like hand disks where it can store a large amount of data. You can also store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, and CD, which can be kept outside your computer and can be carried to other computers,

Power of Remembering
Computer has the power of storing huge amount of information or data. Information can be stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any number of years. It depends entirely upon you, how much data you want to store in a computer and when to use or retrieve the data.

Limitation of computers
Computers does not work on it self, it receives a set of instructions and only then it can function. Computers are not intelligent, they have to be instructed about each and every step which they have to perform i.e. each and every task to be performed by them should be given in details. It cannot take decisions on its own, one has to program the computer to take an action if some conditions prevail Computers, unlike humans cannot learn by experience.

Types of computers
On the basis of processing of information, the computers can be broadly classified as follows: Analog Computer: It is special purpose machine designed for some scientific or technical applications. Generally it is used in chemical plants for monitoring temperatures, pressures, voltage etc. It is also operate on physical quantities that have continuous signals. The speed is usually very high. Analog computers are less expensive and require less programming efforts. In his way we can say that analog computers are used for specific purposes, generally used measure the quantities.

Digital Computers
The digital computer are that it is automatic, largely generally purpose and electronic. It is used to solving the problems effectively and quickly. There are three major elements in a computer system which help in solving the problems; they are hardware, software and data. The relationship of these elements can be represented in equation: Hardware +software + data= Solution It refers to a computer, which represents the data, whether numbers, letters or symbols in binary form and they work with numbers in the form of separate discrete digits. It is used in commercial and administrative applications and for mathematical computation.

Hybrid Computers
Hybrid computer is the COMBINATION of analog and digital computers. It can some calculations are performed in the analog portion of computer and some are performed on the digital portion of the computer. Such computers are used for scientific applications and industrial control processes.

Classification of computer (Size and Complexities)

The size of a computer often determine its functions and the processing capacity. All computers, no matter now small or large, generally have the same functionalities, Processing, Storage, input and output. Computers are generally decided into the following classes:

1. Micro computers
The most familiar kind of computer is the microcomputer. It have been considered to be two types 1. Personal Computer 2 Workstations Personal Computers: It is a small single user computer based on microprocessor. There as the different type of personal describe as following

Personal Computer Types

Desktop

Laptop

Palmtop

Desktop
Desktop: are not designed for portability; the expectation with desktop system is that you will set the computers up in permanent location Laptop: It is also called notebook computers. It is portable computers that can run on batteries. Palmtop: It tightly integrated computers that often use flash memory instead of a hard drive for storage. These computer are used touch screen technology for user input. It can typically sit in your arm

Mainframe Computers
These are huge computers that could fill entire room. They are expensive computers capable of supporting even thousands of users simultaneously. As the size of computers has reduced while the power has increased, mainframes have fallen out of use in favor of enterprise server.

Supper Computer
Supercomputers are the fastest calculating devices ever invented. A desktop microcomputer processes data and instructions in millions of a second , microseconds. A super computer by contrast, can operate at speeds measured in nanoseconds to one million times faster than microcomputers. Most supper computers are used by government agencies.

Network Computers
Network computers have minimal memory, disk storage and processor power designed to connect to a network, especially the internet. Instead, they can rely on the power of the network servers. Network computers designed to connect to the internet are sometimes called internet boxes, net PCs and internet applications. According to this profile a a network computer has form 4 to 64 MB Ram , an 8MB ROM card, a Smart card slot etc.

MINI Computers
It also known as midrange computer were first developed as special purpose main frame computers. They were used for instance to control machine in a manufacturing unit. Indeed, the more powerful minicomputer models are called super minis. One of the popular minicomputer systems is the VAX made by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC).

Computer Generations
Evolution of computer started from 16th century and resulted in the form that we see today. The present day computers , however have also undergone rapid changes during the last fifty years. This period, during which evolution of computers took place, can be divided into five distinct phases known as Generations of computers.

 First generation computers used Vacuum Tubes. These computers were large in size and programming them was difficult. Some of the computers of this generation were: ENIAC: (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator) was the first electronic computer built in 1946 at university of USA by John Ecker and John Mauchy. It was 30x50 feet long, weighed 30 Tons, contained 18000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors, 10,000 capacitor and required 150 Kilowatts of electricity .

First Generation Computer (1946-55)

Drawback of First Generations computers

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. They were quite bulky Operations speed was quite slow. Power consumption was high. It required large space for installation Generated high level of heat. They had no operating system. The programming capability was quite slow.

Second Generation Computers (1955-64)

In the second generation computer, vacuum tubes are replaced by Transistor. A single transistor was equivalent to circuit produced by several hundred vacuum tubes. Thus the size of the computer got reduced considerably. Transistors therefore provided higher operating speed compare than first generation computer. In the second generation that concept of CPU, Memory, Programming language and input and output units were developed.

 IBM 1920: Its size was small as compared to first generation computer and it is also used for scientific purpose. IBM 1401: Its size small to medium and it was used for business applications. CDC 3600: Its size was large but it was used for scientific purposes.

Features of Second Generation

1. Relatively faster than first generation computers. 2. Smaller than fist generation computers 3. Generated low levels of heat 4. Higher capacity of internal storage.

Third Generation Computer (1964-75)

The third generation computers were introduced in 1964. They used integrated circuits (IC). A single IC has many Transistors, resistors and capacitors built on a single chip. So it is obvious that the size of computer got further reduced. Some computers were developed during this period were IBM-360, ICL-1900, IBM- 370 and VAX-750. We can used high level language in this computer such as BASIC.

Features
Used tiny ICs. Relatively small in size Made use of operating system. High processing speed More reliable Power efficient and high speed Large memory Low cost

Fourth Generation Computers (1975-89)

It uses large scale integrated circuits built on single silicon chip called micro processor. Due to development of microprocessor it is possible to place computers central processing unit on a single chip. These computers are called microcomputers Later Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits (VLSIC) replaced LSICs.

Features
Very fast Very low heat generation Smaller in size Very reliable Negligible hardware failure

Modern Computes (1989-Preasent days)

The computers which can think and take decisions like human beings have been characterized as fifth generation computers and are referred to as thinking Machines. The speed in extremely high in fifth generation computers. The concept of Artificial Intelligence has been introduced to allow the computers to take its own decisions. It is still in a developmental stages.

Applications of Computer
Computer in Management: Project management software is used on computers to plan, schedule, track, analyze, control manpower, material and other resource for complex and diverse projects related to various professionals. Many organizations and departments take up new project work such as installing anew factory, constructing a new building, a power plant, opening a new institute, a hospital and so on. The project manager can establish budgets arrange schedule, and plan pricing strategy by accumulating data having all other facts on the basis which the entire projects plan depend.

 Computer can used as a tool to manage such project works with the help of project management software available for such purposes. For computer analysis the information required is: 1. What are the tasks for be performed? 2. In what sequence the tasks are to be performed/ 3. What is the time required to complete each task.

1.Ticketing and Reservation 2. Computer in Military 3. Computer in Design and Research work 4. Computer in Banking 5. Computer in Education

DOS (Disk Operating System)

Dos is character based operating system. That is you type the commands through keyboard unlike in GUI (Graphics User Interface) where you interact in terms of mouse movement and mouse clicking. It was developed by Microsoft primarily as a single user operating system working on computers. This operating system was simple and small enough to be stored on Floppy disk, therefore, the name is Disk operating System.

 From 1981 till now many versions starting form Ver1.0 till 6.2 have been released. In Dos these programs are stored in three files: MSDOS.SYS,IO.SYS and COMMAND.COM. However, MSDOS.SYS and IO.SYS are hidden programs and cannot be seen in the directory.

DOS Commands
Dos commands can be divided into two Categories: 1. Internal Commands: Internal commands are those commands that can be entered once the DOS prompt is available, i.e. they do not need any special file for their execution.

 Internal Commands
CD CLS Copy Date Del Dir MD Move REN Time Sort Type Tree RD REN

External Commands
External Commands are those commands that need separate files, containing their source codes, to invoke them. Format Edit Help Chkdsk Fdisk Move MEM

Spreadsheets
Spreadsheets are basically meant for quick tabulation, calculation, charting and reporting purpose. The spreadsheet revolution swept through the commerce and business world in the 80s. The first package developed was VisiCal ( Acronym for Visible Calculator) developed by Dan B Ricklin and Bob Frankston. Today, we have a number of spreadsheet packages in use. The commonly used are Lotus 123, Microsoft Excel.

 Many commerce and management science courses currently use spreadsheets. The spreadsheets are becoming the software platform of choice for teaching management science to business students. Spreadsheets are commonly used for questionnaire analysis, presentation of statistical information. Ms Excel is part of MS-office products The first version introduced in 1987 of windows 97.

Advantages of Spreadsheets
The result produced are very accurate if data entry is correct The record in a worksheet may be very large but a small part if it can be viewed or edited Data can be formatted using spreadsheet program to give a professional look A worksheet can be stored edited and modified even at letter date.

 The spreadsheet is much more than just a calculator; it can be in fact a platform for powerful end-user modeling. It mans that the properly educated business analysts can be the spreadsheet to build simple but flexible and powerful models for making important business decisions. The data from other applications (Word, Access. FoxPro) can be imported in the worksheets and can even be exported.

Concept of Programming
Computer has no intelligence of its own and each and every instruction should be given to it for performing any task. The set of instruction given to computer process the data or performing certain task called a Program. Programming is the technique for writing the programs. Programming, which is done at system level for developing system software is known as systems programming. System programs are written in low level language and some high level language like C,C++ etc.

UNIT-II

Introduction to Network
Organizations now are very widespread; they are hundreds of branches spread over wide geographically areas. One would like to routinely be able to examine the current status of even the remote most outpost without any trouble, with a mere click of mouse button. Computer network is a communication system where a group of computers and open device like printers are connected by cables and other hardware of through other communication means and devices.

 Network Hardware: The hardware components required for computer networking are: NIC (Network Interface Card) Modems Communication Media Routers Gateways

 Network Software: The software component required for computer networking are: Protocols (FTP,HTTP) Network operating system Network applications

Analog Signals
Analog refers to something that is continuous a set of specific points of data and all possible points between. Example: Human voice, when somebody speaks a continuous wave is created in the air. This can be captured by a microphone and converted to an analog signals An analog signal is a continuous wave form that changes smoothly over time.

 As the wave moves from value A to value B, it passes through and includes an infinite number of values along its path.

 Analog transmission refers to telephone lines used with modems. These can be: Dial-up lines-It is used for unfrequented data transmissions Dedicated lines- It used for frequent and continuous data transmission.

Digital Signals
Digital refers to something that is discrete (Separate) a set of specific points of data with no other points in between Example: Digital signal is data stored in the memory of a computer in the form of 0 and 1. It is usually converted to a an digital signals when it is transferred from one position to another inside or out side computer.

 Digital line provides faster and a more secure transmission as compared to the telephone lines. Digital transmission does not require the use of modems. Following are the different form of digital lines: Digital Data services Switched

Bandwidth
The bandwidth of signals is the difference between its highest and lowest frequencies. Bandwidth which of the two broadband communication is used Example: A signal has a bandwidth of 20Hz and its highest frequency is 60Hz . What is lowest frequency. Lowest frequency=Highest Frequency-Bandwidth LF=60-20 LF=40Hz The bandwidth of optical fiber is far more than that of coaxial cable.

Network Topology
Topology can determine not only the type of cable used but how the cable is run through floors and walls topologies can also determine how computers communicate on the network. Different topology require different communication methods. There are number of topologies described as following: Bus (Linear) Topology Star Topology Ring (Circular) Topology Tree Topology Hybrid Topology

Bus (Linear) Topology

The linear bus topology, all computers are connected by a single length of cabling with a terminator at each end. It is the simplest and most widely used network design. This consists of single length of the transmission medium (Normally coaxial cable) onto which the various nodes are attached. The transmission from any station travels the length of the bus, in both directions, and can be received by another stations.

 Bus (Linear topology)

Advantages
1. Short Cable length and simple Wiring layout: There is a single common data path connecting all nodes, the linear topology allows a very short cable length to be used. This decreases the installations cost, and also leads to a simple, easy to maintain wiring layout. 2. Resilient Architecture: The linear architecture an inherent simplicity that makes it very reliable from a hardware point of view. There is single cable through which all the data propagates and to which all nodes are connected. 3. Easy to Extend: Additional nodes can be connected to an existing bus network at any its length.

Disadvantages
1. Fault diagnosis is difficult: The bus topology means that there is very little to go wrong, fault detection is not a simple matter. Control of the network is not centralized in any particular node. This means that detection of a fault may have to be performed from many points in the network. 2. Fault Isolation (Separation) is difficult: In the star topology, a defective node can easily be isolated from the network by removing its connections at the center. If a node is faulty on the bus, it must be rectified at the point where the node is connected to the network. 3. Nodes must be Intelligent: Each node on the network is directly connected to the central bus. This means that some way of deciding who can use the network at any given time must be performed in each node.

Star Topology
This topology consists of a central node to which all other nodes are connected by single path. It is the topology used in most existing information network involving data processing or voice communications, In Star topology, all the cables run form the computers to a central locations, where they are connected by a hub. Hub is a device used to extend a network so that additional workstations can be attached.

Star Topology

 1. Ease of service: The star topology has a number of concentration points (where connections are joined). These provide easy access for service or reconfiguration of the network. 2. One device per connection: Connection points in any network are inherently prone to failure in the star topology, failure of a single connection typically involves disconnecting one node form an otherwise fully functional network. Centralized control: The fact that the Central node is connected directly to every other node in the network means that faults are easily detected and isolated. It is a simple matter to disconnect failing nodes from the system.

Advantages

Disadvantages
Long Cable Length: In star topology , each node is directly connected to the center, the star topology necessitates a large quantity of cable as the cost of cable is often small, congestion in cable ducts and maintenance and installation problems can increase cost considerably. Difficult to expand: The addition of a new node to star network involves a connections all the way to the central node. Central node Dependency: If the central node in a star network fails, the entire network is rendered inoperable (not curable.)

Ring (Circular) Topology

In this case, each node is connected to two and only two neighboring nodes. Data us accepted form one of the neighboring nodes and is transmitted onwards to another. Thus data travels in one direction only, form node to node around the ring. In this layout, each node passes information along to next, until it arrives at its intended destination. Performance is faster on this system because each portion of the cabling system is handling only the data flow between tow machine.

Ring Topology

Ring Network

Advantages
Short Cable length: The amount of cabling involved in a ring topology is comparable to that of a bus and is small relative to that of star. This means that less connections will be needed, which will in turn increase network reliability. No wiring closet space required: There is only one cable connecting each node to its immediate neighbors, it is not necessary to allocate space in the building for wiring closets. Suitable for Optical Fibers: The using optical fibers offers the possibility of very high speed transmission.

Disadvantages
1. Node failure causes network failure: The transmission of data on a ring goes through every connected node on the ring before returning to the sender. If one doe fails to pass data through it self, the entire network has failed and no traffic can flow until the defective node has been removed from the ring. 2. Difficult to diagnose (identify) Faults: The fact that failure of one node will affect all others has serious implications for fault diagnosis.

Tree Topology
The tree topology can be derived from the star topology. The tree has hierarchy of various hubs, like you have branches in a tree. In this case node is connected to some hub. It also contains many secondary hubs, which may be active hubs or passive (inactive) hubs. It containing zero or more nodes that linked together in hierarchical shape. The advantage or disadvantage of tree topology are almost similar to the star topology.

Tree Topology
1
NODE HUB HUB Head Hub

NODE

HUB

NODE

NODE

Hybrid Topology
Hybrid topology is one that uses two or more of the topologies mentioned above together. In this case, the bus, star and ring topologies are used to create this hybrid topology. There are multiple ways in which this can be created. In this topology network are quite complex but they can be reduced to some form of hybrid topology.

Hybrid Topology
HUB

Transmission Media
The transmission media are the physical infrastructure components that carry data from one computer to another. Transmission media need always be in the form of a physical wire they can be invisible. We shall study these different types of transmission media.

Guided Media
Guided media can be further subdivided into three main types 1. Twisted Pair Wire A) Unshielded Twisted B) Shielded Twisted 2. Coaxial Cables 3. Optical Fiber

Twisted pair cable

There are two classes of twisted pair cables. A) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): It consists of two insulated copper wires, it may be 1 MM thick. They are twisted together to reduce electrical interference form similar pairs closed. It is used for data transmission over short distance up to 1 KM. this is the most commonly used medium today, because of its usage in the telephone system. It can carry voice as well as data. It requires minimum three twist per foot. It is flexible, cheap and easy to install. It can carry voice and data up to 10Mbps. It can handle data speed of 100 Mbps.

B) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

In this case, apart form the insulator, the twisted wire pair itself is covered by metal shield and finally by the plastic cover. The metal shield prevents penetration of electromagnetic noise. It also helps eliminate crosstalk, an effect wherein one picks up some of the signals traveling on the other wire. This effect can be felt sometimes during telephone conversations, when we hear other conversations in the background during our call. But is more expensive then UTP.

Coaxial Cable
It is a group of specially wrapped and insulated wires that are able to transfer data at higher rate. They consist of a central copper wire. Surrounded by an insulation over which copper mesh is placed. They are used for long distance telephone lines and local area network for their noise immunity and faster data transfer.

Optical Fiber
It is the nearest form of bounded media. This media is superior in data handling & security characteristics the fiber optic cable transmits lights signals rather than electrical signals. It is more efficient than the other network transmission media.

Unguided Media (Wireless communication )

The unbounded media allows the flow of data in all direction but requires larger amount of initial energy to reach to the receiver because of attenuation of signal while passing the medium . It is used the earth atmosphere or the space. These are two types communication 1. Microwave Communication 2. Satellite Communication

Microwave Communication
The microwave signals are transmitted through the atmosphere as radio and television signals are transmitted rather than through wire cables. A microwave system consists of towers located at intervals of 25 to 30 miles on which dish like antennas are mounted. Microwave signals must be transmitted in a straight line as the do not bend around corners or around the curve of the earth. It has the capacity to carry large quantities of data i.e. both digital and analog at high rates of speed. They are used for transmission of TV and telephonic signals It has much lower error rate thus making it more reliable as compared to wire cable.

Satellite Communication
In a satellite network, data are not transferred directly from transmitter to receiver, but are relayed through satellite. Each station transmits and receive data through satellite. The satellite communication in space orbiting 22,000 miles above the earth, and also used as microwave relay satiations because they rotate at the precise (accurate) point. The satellite networks have numerous advantages over terrestrial (Global) network. The are accessible form any spot on the globe, and provided broad band digital services, including, voice, data and video etc. The satellite communications satellite are a essential element of the global communication infrastructures.

Application and Importance of Network

1. Sharing Peripherals: Networks allow efficient management of resources and we can connect all input and output device to each other. 2. Sharing Information: Its help to keep information reliable and up to date. It can managed, centralized data storage system allows multiple users to access data from different allocations.

3. Fast Person-to- Person Communication: Service like electronic mail being offered by computer network, allow much more efficient communication among individuals. 4. Access to Remote programs: In this it allow its clients to log in over the network to know various rates which might affect their business 5. Interactive Entertainments: Video on demand is huge and growing industry with new films and televisions becoming interactive.

UNIT- III

Introduction of Database
The collection of activities involved in acquisition, storage, processing, exchange, sharing and using data/information is known as database management. Traditional, the computer-based data management, involved storing data in the form of flies, which can be accessed, update and worked with using software; thus it reduced the cumbersome (bulky) work of manually maintaining files. This computer-based file management paperless environment.

Concept of Database
Data: Data is collection of meaningful facts of figures expressed in a form that its users could understand. It can be recorded and processed for further use. Example a collection of monthly incomes of all employees of an organization in numerical form is data. Information: The knowledge derived from processing a set of data is known as information. Any input, whether data or information, that goes into a process is termed as data and the output is information

 Process: An activity manual automated or computerized that transform input into information is known as information. Data Process information Database: A collection of related sets of data items along with necessary data/information associated with it , is known as database. Example: A simple database maintaining information about students, name, rollno, course, and grade in a university. Database is software that provides the following facilities in general: 1. Defining 2. Constructing 3. Manipulating

 Defining: Each database offers methods and procedure through which users can specify the data, their types their structure and constraints for the data to be stored in the database. Constructing: Once the database definition is available, it must be created on a storage device and populated with the data itself. Manipulating: Once the database loaded with relevant data values is in place, users need to use it for their specific purposes.

 A number of concepts have been developed and standardized subsequently. In order to have a clear appreciation of a database system, one must acquaint oneself with some basic concepts given as under: 1. Data Model 2. Physical Model 3.

Characteristics of DBMS
A variety of database management systems are now available commercially, they all have some common characteristics. Some of the most important characteristics are discussed below: Database system is Self-Describing in Nature: A database has a complete definition or description of the database structure and constraints. It does not depend on any external information for handling the data stored in it. This definition is stored in the system catalog, which contains information such as the structure of each file, the type and storage format of each data item, and various constraints on the data.

Data Independence
This characteristics of a database allows changing data storage structures and operations without having to change the DBMS access programs. It is possible because the structure of data files is stored in the DBMS catalog separately form the access programs.

Data Abstraction (concept)

The form of data that is actually stored inside the database and that is presented to the different users are not the same. A data model is used to hide storage details and present the users with a conceptual view of the database. The users do not have to worry as to how the data is actually stored on the storage devices.

Multiple View Support

Each user may see a different view of the same database, which describes only data of interest to that user. Thus, no matter how the data is stored, each user gets her data in her own desired format.

Data sharing and Transaction Processing

A database may have multiple simultaneous users. The DBMS must, therefore, have concurrency control mechanisms to ensure that the result of multi-user access is always correct.

Advantages of DBMS
The advantages of using a DBMS are so varied and numerous that no modern organization can afford to ignore it. Some of the main advantages of DBMS are: 1. Redundancy Control: It stores each logical data item in only one place. It controlling redundancy in data storage and in development and maintenance efforts ensures that information is not repeated many times at many places but stored in a signal copy thus saving costly space and avoiding multiple updating in case a data item needs to be changed.

Access Control
The DBA uses security and authorization subsystem in order to specify account restrictions. Thus, a DBA has full control on who can use the data in what way. This feature guards the database loaded with valuable data from any misuse or destruction. Multi User Interfaces: To satisfy user with varying levels of technical knowledge, DBMS provide interfaces of varying complexities. Each user interacting with the database can have their own set of utility programs and hence their specific interfaces.

Integrity Constraints
It has capability for defining and