Thermodynamics and Energy

Basic Concepts

Thermodynamics

Science of Energy What is Energy?

Ability to cause change Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis (power) or Turn heat into power

Thermodynamics:

Now includes all aspects of energy and energy transformations

Laws of Energy

Conservation of Energy Principle

Energy can change from one form to another but total amount remains constant
Can neither create nor destroy energy Energy has quality as well as quantity

First Law of Thermodynamics

Second Law of Thermodynamics

History

Early work in 1850s by

William Rankine Rudolph Clausius Lord Kelvin (William Thompson)

Thermodynamics

Classical thermodynamics

Macroscopic view Looks at results of actions at overall level

Microscopic view Looks at actions at individual particle level

Statistical thermodynamics

Most engineering work at macroscopic level.

Units

Base units

Mass, m (or force), length, L, time, t, temperature, T

Velocity, V, energy, E, volume, v

Derived units

Units

Systems

SI, international
Mass based Decimal system

English (US Customary System, USCS)

Force based (gravitational) Unique relationships abound

Key Units

Key Units

Newton (N): force required to accelerate a mass of one kg at a rate of one meter/second2 Pound-force (lbf): force required to accelerate a mass of 32.174 lbm (1 slug) at a rate of one foot/second2 Weight is a force, mass is not weight

Key Units

Specific weight : weight per unit volume or = g where is density and g is the gravitational constant. Work (energy): force times distance, newton-meter (Nm) called a joule (J) Energy is English system is BTU: energy required to raise the temperature of 1 lbm of water at 68F by 1F.

1BTU = 1.0551 kJ

Dimensional Homogeneity

Systems and Control Volumes

System: a quantity of matter or a region

in space chosen for study Surroundings: everything outside the system Boundary: the surface that separates the system and the surroundings

Systems and Control Volumes

Systems and Control Volumes

Closed System (Control Mass): fixed amount of mass, no mass can cross boundary, energy can cross boundary Special case: no energy crosses boundary,

isolated system

Systems and Control Volumes

Systems and Control Volumes

Open Systems (Control Volumes): selected region in space, both mass and energy cross the boundary of the system

Systems and Control Volumes

Systems and Control Volumes

Properties of a System

Characteristics of a system are called Properties Examples: pressure, temperature, mass, volume Intensive Properties: independent of mass of system

Temperature, density, pressure

Extensive Properties: value depends on size or extent of system

Total mass, total volume, total momentum

Properties

Extensive Properties

Properties per unit mass are called

Specific Properties

Examples: specific volume v = V/m specific total energy e = E/m Convention: extensive properties, upper case, intensive properties, lower case Exceptions: mass, pressure, temperature

Continuum

An assumption that allows us to work problems Disregards atomic nature of substance Continuum assumption allows:

Treat properties as point functions Properties vary continually in space

Density and Specific Gravity

Density: mass per unit volume

= m/V

(kg/m3)
(m3/kg)

Specific Volume: volume per unit mass

V = V/m = 1/

Specific Gravity: ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a standard substance at a give temperature.

SG = /water (also called relative density)

Density and Specific Gravity

Specific Weight

The weight of a unit volume of a substance is called specific weight s = g (N/m3)

State

State is when all the properties of a system have fixed, unchanging, values A system is said to be at a state when all the properties in the system can be measured or calculated and the system is not undergoing a change.

State

Equilibrium

Equilibrium implies a state of balance, no unbalanced driving forces in the system Equilibrium types:

Thermal: system at same temperature Mechanical: consistent pressure Phase: at equilibrium level Chemical: no chemical reactions occur

State Postulate

State postulate: the state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent, intensive properties Simple compressible system if no electrical, magnetic, gravitational, motion, surface tension effects Independent if one can be varied while the other is held constant

State

Processes and Cycles

Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is called a process The series of states through which a system passes during a process is called a path of the process

Processes

To describe a process completely need:

Initial and final states Path it follows Interactions with surroundings

Quasi- Processes

When a process moves so slowly that all parts of the system change at the same rate and are in equilibrium with all other parts of the system, the process is called quasi-static or a quasi-equilibrium process A quasi-equilibrium process is an idealized process and does not occur in nature.

Serve as a standard to be compared to

Iso- processes

Iso- processes are processes that one property remains constant:

Isothermal: temperature Isobaric: pressure Isochoric, isometric: specific volume

Cycle

Special process where the process at the final state returns to the initial state

Steady-Flow Process

Steady: no change with time Uniform: no change with location over a specific region Opposite of steady: unsteady or transient

Steady-Flow Process

Steady-flow process is a process during which a fluid flows through a control volume steadily

Steady-Flow Process
Under steady-flow conditions, the mass and energy contents of a control volume remain constant

Temperature

Relative: freezing cold, cold, warm, hot, red-hot Reference to know events, solidifying of water, vaporizing of water

Thermal Equilibrium

Thermal equilibrium occurs when no temperature gradient exists, both objects are at same temperature

Zeroth Law

If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, the are in thermal equilibrium with each other. Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the same temperature, even is they are not in contact.

Temperature Scales

Relative or Two Point Scales

Based on temperature of ice/liquid water and liquid water/water vapor mixtures SI system: Celsius scale based on 100 units between points (C) English system: Fahrenheit scale based on 180 units between points with lower point set at 32 units (F)

Temperature Scales

Thermodynamic temperature scales, absolute scales Based on absolute zero temperature SI system: Kelvin scale, freezing point of water at 273.15 units (K) English system: Rankine scale, freezing point of water at 459.67 units (R) Ideal-gas temperature scale

Temperature Relationships

Kelvin to Celsius: T(K) = T(C) + 273.15 Rankine to Fahrenheit: T(R) = T(F) + 459.67 Between the English and SI systems:

T(R) = 1.8T(K) T(F) = 1.8T(C) + 32

Temperature Relationships

Note that:

T(K) = T(C) T(R) = T(F)

Pressure

Pressure is a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area Units, force/unit area, N/m2, called a pascal (Pa) 1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa 1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bars

Pressure

Absolute pressure: relative to absolute vacuum (absolute zero pressure) Gage pressure: relative to atmospheric pressure Pgage = Pabs - Patm Pvac = Patm Pabs

Pressure

Pressure with Depth

P = P2 P1 = gz = sz P = Patm + gh or Pgage = gh

Pressure with Depth

Pressure

Pressure

Pressure

Problem-Solving Technique

Problem statement Schematic Assumptions & approximations Physical laws Properties Calculations Reasoning, verification, discussion