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Mechanical Engineering Science 8
Dr. Daniil Yurchenko
First Order Systems:
Response to external excitation
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Introduction
Mechanical System

u M F

=

ku F u c F
s d
= = ,

0 = + + =
ext s d
F F F F
ext
F ku u c = +

0 = M
a
T
ext
F
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Introduction
Thermal System

C thermal capacity
of the water
R
T T
q q q
dt
dT
C
a w w

= =
0 0
;
C
q
RC
T
RC
T
dt
dT
a w w
+ = +
a
T
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Introduction
Fluid System
; ;
0 1
2
1
1
q q
dt
dV
q q
dt
dV
i
= =
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Introduction
Fluid System









We got a set of two first order ODEs.
; ;
0 1
2
1
1
q q
dt
dV
q q
dt
dV
i
= =
; ; , ,
2
2
0
1
2 1
1 2 2 2 1 1 1
R
h
q
R
h h
q h C V h C V =

= = =
2 1 1
1
1 1
1
2 1 1
1
h q R h
dt
dh
R C
R
h h
q
dt
dh
C
i i
+ = +

=
2
2
1
2 1 2
2 0 1
2
2
R
h
R
h h
dt
dh
C q q
dt
dh
C

= =
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Introduction
In this section we will consider the response of the
standard form first order differential equation to
four different input functions




i.e. we will solve this differential equation for 4
specified input functions x
i
(t)
T
y
T
x
x = +

Equ (1)
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Introduction
The specified inputs will be:
1) Step
2) Ramp
3) Impulse
4) Harmonic (sine or cosine wave input)
These are chosen because they are often
the signals used to test physical systems
and thus we can determine an expected
response
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Introduction
The solution to this differential equation can be
found in a number of ways: e.g. Laplace
Transform, D-operator, integrating factor,
complementary function + particular integral
(CF+PI)

In this course we will use the Laplace transform
and CF + PI technique.
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Introduction

The advantage of the CF + PI technique is
that the complementary function part is
common to the solution for all possible
input functions and needs only to be
derived once.
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1
st
Order System: Complementary function
This solution is found by setting the right hand
side of equation (1) equal to zero and
considering forms of x
O
(t) which will satisfy
the expression on the right hand side. This is
essentially an informed guessing game. A
typical function which achieves this is:



Where A and s are constants to be found.
( )
st
Ae t x =
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1
st
Order System: Complementary function
Because this part of the solution does not depend
on any input (we set x
i
= 0) and it (usually)
disappears with time we call it the transient
solution.
Starting with equation (1) and y = 0 we have



0 = +
T
x
x

Equ (2)
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1
st
Order System: Complementary function
We now guess a solution x based on the
requirement that x and its first derivative must be
of a similar form to enable a realistic chance of
solving the equation.
As we said above such a solution is:


Substituting into equation (2)

( )
st
Ae t x =
whence
( )
st
sAe t x =

0 =
|
.
|

\
|
+
st
e
T
A
As
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1
st
Order System: Complementary function
Assuming e
st
isnt zero, we get


Which gives:
0 = +
T
A
As
T
s
1
=
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1
st
Order System: Complementary function
Therefore the complementary function is:
( )
T
t
CF
Ae t x

=
Equ (3)
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1
st
Order System: Particular Integral
This solution determines the steady state
response of the system and depends on the
complete differential equation.
A solution for x

(t) is developed which is
based on the form of the input function y(t).
If the input is a ramp y(t) = t, the expected
response will be of the form x

(t) = At+B
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1
st
Order System: Particular Integral
The constants A and B are determined by
substituting the known y(t) and the
assumed form of x

(t) into the differential
equation.
The general solution is then the sum of the
particular integral and the complementary
function.
Any remaining unknown constants are
determined from the initial conditions.
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1
st
Order System: 1) Step response
A step input is defined as:



And



Where H is the magnitude of the step.

( ) 0 , 0 < = t t y
( ) 0 , > = t H t y
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1
st
Order System: 1) Step response
If we plot this function against t we see the
reason for calling it a step:

x
t
H
0
+ve
-ve
y
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1
st
Order System: 1) Step response
With this input, equation (1) becomes (dropping
the t in brackets):



For the particular integral we will try a constant
as the solution (reasonable since the input is a
constant). i.e.:
H
T
x
T
x
1 1
= +

( ) ( ) 0 , = = t x B t x

Equ (4)
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1
st
Order System: 1) Step response
Substitution into equation (4) gives:



Hence

Therefore the particular solution is
H
T
B
T
1 1
0 = +
H B =
( ) H t x
PI
= Equ (5)
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1
st
Order System: 1) Step response
The general solution is the sum of the
complementary function and particular
integral. From equations (3) & (5)



The constant of integration A is found
from the initial conditions.

( ) ( ) ( )
T
t
CF PI
Ae H t x t x t x

+ = + =
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1
st
Order System: 1) Step response
If we assume that at t = 0 the system was at
rest and that before the step arrived

Then

Since

Then
( ) 0 0 = x
1 0 + = A H
1
0
=

T
e
H A =
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1
st
Order System: 1) Step response
From the above we can now see that the
response of a first order linear system to a
step input is given by:




This function is often referred to as a
simple lag or an exponential lag
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

T
t
e H t x 1
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1
st
Order System: 1) Step response
For a unit step H = 1 the response is:
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1
st
Order System: 1) Step response
For this function, as t , the output
x H, the magnitude of the input.
Therefore there is no difference between
the steady state response and the input. We
say that there is no steady state error. The
output approaches the input via a negative
exponential such that:
At t = T seconds, x = 63% of y
At t = 4T seconds, x = 98% of y
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1
st
Order System: 1) Step response
The significance of the time constant is that it
controls the speed of response of the system.
If the time constant T is 10 sec the system will
take 10 sec to reach 63% of its final value and 40
sec to reach 98% of its final value following a
step input

Similarly if T = 1 sec the system requires 1 sec to
reach 63% of its final value and 4 sec to reach
98%.
Class to demonstrate this to themselves
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1
st
Order System: 2) Ramp response
A unit ramp input function is defined by


A non-unit ramp of slope M is defined by


A graph of the function illustrates the
origin of the name
( ) t t y =
( ) Mt t y =
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1
st
Order System: 2) Ramp response
Unit ramp function Ramp function


x
t
0
+ve
-ve
slope = 1
y

x
t
0
+ve
-ve
slope = 1
slope=M
y
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1
st
Order System: 2) Ramp response
With a unit ramp input equation (1) may
be written


We will guess that the response is also a
ramp of the form:
t
T
x
T
x
1 1
= +

( ) ( ) B t x C Bt t x = + =

Equ (6)
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1
st
Order System: 2) Ramp response
Substituting into equation (6) gives


Comparing coefficients of t


Comparing constants

t
T
C
T
Bt
T
B
1 1 1
= + +
1
1 1
= = B
T
B
T
0
1
= + C
T
B
Which gives
T C
T
C
= = + 0 1
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1
st
Order System: 2) Ramp response
Hence the particular solution is


As before the general solution is the sum
of the particular integral (equ(7)) and the
complementary function (equ(3))
( ) T t t x
PI
=
Equ (7)
( )
T
t
Ae T t t x

+ =
Equ (8)
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1
st
Order System: 2) Ramp response
The constant of integration in equ (8) can
be found from the initial conditions. If we
assume that at t = 0, x = 0 i.e. x(0) = 0
then:

Therefore the response of a first order
linear system to a unit ramp input is:
T A A T Ae T = = + = 1 0 0
0
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

T
t
e T t t x 1
Equ (9)
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1
st
Order System: 2) Ramp response
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1
st
Order System: 2) Ramp response
From eq. (9) and the figure it can be seen
that the output increasingly lags behind the
input until t >> T when the lag becomes
constant at T.


This means that if we minimise T the
response becomes quicker and the steady
state error (difference between input and
input as t ) is also minimised.
( ) | | T T t t e T t t t x t y
T
t
t t
= + =

(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
=


1 lim ) ( lim
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1
st
Order System: 2) Ramp response
Steady-state error
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1
st
Order System: 3) Impulse response
A unit impulse or Dirac delta function is
an infinitesimally short pulse of arbitrary
magnitude but which has an area under the
impulse curve of unity. It has the symbol
(t) and the unit area property may be
expressed:
( ) 1 =
}

dt t o
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1
st
Order System: 3) Impulse response

x
t
0
+ve
-ve
( ) t o
infinitesimal width
The impulse function is shown schematically below
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1
st
Order System: 3) Impulse response
Thus the impulse input to our first order
system is

Then the standard first order equation may
be written:
( ) ( ) t t y o =
( ) t
T
x
T
x o
1 1
= +

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Laplace Transform of
Impulse Function
f(t)
t

=
= =
otherwise , 0
0 t , 1
) ( ) ( t t f o
) 0 ( ) ( ) (
0
f dt t f t =
}

o
1 )] ( [ = t L o
( ) t o
1 ) ( ) (
0
= =
}

dt e t s F
st
o
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1
st
Order System: 3) Impulse response
Thus
( )
(

=
(

+ t
T
L x
T
x L o
1 1

( ) | |
T
t L
T
s X
T
x s sX
1 1
) (
1
) 0 ( ) ( = = + o
T
T x
s X
T
sT
x
T
s X
T
s
) 0 ( 1
) (
1
) 0 (
1
) (
1
+
=
+
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
+
sT
T x
s X
+
+
=
1
) 0 ( 1
) (
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1
st
Order System: 3) Impulse response
Applying inverse L-transform




Assuming x(0)=0 we get
| |
(

+
+
=
(

+
+
=

s T
L
T
T x
sT
T x
L s X L
/ 1
1 ) 0 ( 1
1
) 0 ( 1
) (
1 1 1
T t
e
T
t x
/
1
) (

=
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1
st
Order System: 3) Impulse response
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1
st
Order System: 3) Impulse response
The initial value of the response is 1/T and
this response then decays exponentially to
zero as time increases.
At time t = T seconds the response is 37%
of its initial value.
The figure also shows that the initial
tangent to the curve intercepts the time
axis at t = T.
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1
st
Order System: 3) Impulse response
This last statement can be proven by
deriving the equation of the tangent
Given

Then hence

This leads to the equation of the tangent on
the next slide
( )
T
t
O
e
T
t x

=
1
( )
T
t
O
e
T
t x

=
2
1
( )
2
1
0
T
t x
O
= =
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1
st
Order System: 3) Impulse response
Equation of the tangent is:



Substituting t = T yields y = 0 thus
confirming that this tangent intercepts the
time axis at t = T.
T
t
T
y
1 1
2
+ =
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1
st
Order System: 3) Impulse response
Example: the mass/damper system of the
next slide. Note that there is no spring. To
produce impulsive force we may use a
hammer

m
C
v(t)
F(t)

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1
st
Order System: 4) Harmonic response
In this case the input is either


Therefore we can expect the steady state
response to be of the form
( ) t A t y e sin = ( ) t A t y e cos =
or
( ) ( ) | e = t B t x sin ( ) ( ) | e + = t B t x cos
or
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1
st
Order System: 4) Harmonic response
For harmonic excitation we are interested
in two aspects of the response
The magnification or attenuation of the
output relative to the input

And the phase lag
y
x
|
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1
st
Order System: 4) Harmonic response
The manipulation of the equations
becomes easier if we use complex notation


The response is then
In general B is a complex number which
may be written

( ) ( ) t i t A Ae t y
t i
e e
e
sin cos + = =
( )
t i
Be t x
e
=
| i
e B B

=
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1
st
Order System: 4) Harmonic response
Thus the response becomes


From this we see

( )
( ) | e e
= =
t i t i
e B Be t x
( )
t i
Be i t x
e
e =

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1
st
Order System: 4) Harmonic response
With the given input the standard form of
the equation becomes


If we now substitute the assumed input
from the previous slide
( )
t i
Ae
T
x
T
t x
e
1 1
= +

t i t i t i
Ae
T
Be
T
Be i
e e e
e
1 1
= +
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1
st
Order System: 4) Harmonic response
Thus

And the amplitude ratio is


We wish to get this expression into a more
understandable form. Therefore we must
rationalise it by multiplying numerator and
denominator by the complex conjugate of the
denominator.
A
T
B
T
i
1 1
=
|
.
|

\
|
+ e
T i A
B
e +
=
1
1
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1
st
Order System: 4) Harmonic response
Hence

i.e.

We can plot this expression on an argand
diagram to obtain a more manageable
relationship between B/A and frequency
and between phase lag and
( )
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
T
T i
T i
T i
T i A
B
e
e
e
e
e
+

+
=
( ) ( )
2 2
1 1
1
T
T i
T
A
B
e
e
e +

+
=
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1
st
Order System: 4) Harmonic response


( )
2
1
1
T e +
( )
2
1 T
T
e
e
+

R
|
i
m
a
g
i
n
a
r
y
real
( ) ( )
2 2
1 1
1
T
T i
T
A
B
e
e
e +

+
=
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1
st
Order System: 4) Harmonic response
From the diagram we can see:


and the phase lag is


These two parameters are plotted against
frequency in the next slide

( )
2 2
2
2 2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
1
1
1
1
1 1
1
T T
T
T
T
T
R
A
B
e e
e
e
e
e
+
=
+
+
=
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
|
.
|

\
|
+
= =
( ) ( ) T T
T T
T
e e
e e
e
|
1 1
2 2 2 2
1
1
1
1

= =
|
.
|

\
|
+ +

= tan tan tan

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1
st
Order System: 4) Harmonic response
Amplitude attenuation |B|/|A|