Unit 3

The eye and sight

3.1 Reflection and Refraction
3.2 Thin lens
3.3 The power of a lens
3.4 The structure of the eye
3.5 The accommodation of the eye
3.6 Depth of field and depth of focus
3.7 Resolution of the eye
3.8 Response of the eye to variations in wavelength and
intensity
3.9 Defects of the eye
3.1 Reflection and Refraction
 The Law of Reflection
The angle of incidence equals to the angle of reflection
 Diffusion

• Light is diffused when it reflects from a rough surface. Here

many parallel rays shine on the surface, but they are
reflected at many different angles since the surface is rough.
Mirror
Our image in a mirror is
behind the mirror. The
two rays shown are those
that strike the mirror at
just the correct angles to
be reflected into the eyes
of the person. The image
appears to be in the
direction the rays are
coming from when they
enter the eyes. The image
formed by mirror is called
virtual image.
 Index of Refraction
c
n=
v
where v is the speed of light in the material, and c is the
speed of light in vacuum.

c is a basic physical quantity and has the fix value:

C==2.9972458 x 108 m/s ≅ 3.00 x 108 m/s
The speed of light is always less than c in matter, since
light interact with atoms in a material, the index of
refraction is always greater than or equal to one , that is,
n ≥ 1.
Index of refraction in various media
Medium n
Air (at 0°C, 1 atm) 1.000293
Ethanol (at 20°C) 1.361
Water 1.333
Diamond (at 20°C) 2.419
Glass, crown 1.52
Glass, flint 1.66
Ice 1.309
Quartz, crystalline 1.544
Zircon 1.923
 Law of Refraction

1. The incidence and refracted

rays are on opposite sides of
n1 the normal, and lie in the
same planes as the normal.
n2
sin i
2. n sin
sin1 r
θi = n(Snell'
= Constance
2 θr
sins law)
Shell law

i – Angle of Incidence
r – Angle of Refraction
Total Internal Reflection

A ray of light crosses a

boundary where the speed
of light increases and the
index of refraction
decreases.

That is, n2 < n1 . The ray

bends away from the
perpendicular.
 n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ 2
∴θ 2 > θ1
Total Internal Reflection

The critical angle θ c is

the one for which the
angle of refraction is 90°.

n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ 2

n1 sin θ1 = n2 (sin 90° = 1)

θ c = sin −1 (n2 / n1 )
Total Internal Reflection

Total internal reflection

occurs when the incident
angle is greater than the
critical angle.
Fiber Optics

An image is transmitted by a
bundle of fibers that have
fixed neighbors.
Fiber Optics
• Fiber optics employs the
transmission of light
down fibers of plastic or
glass.
• Fibers in glasses or
plastics are clad by a
material that has a lower
index of refraction than
the core to ensure total
internal reflection even
when fibers are in contact
with one another.
Endoscope (diagram)

3.2 Thin lens

 Endoscope

An endoscope in use to view a patient’s stomach and

take a sample of tissue.
3.2 Thin lens
 Introduction
• A lens that converges rays of light is called a convex
lens.
• A lens that diverges rays of light is called a concave
lens. (The broken lines denote the apparent path traveled
by the diverging rays and not the actual path.)
The location of a real image formed by a
convex lens
 The location of a real image formed by a
convex lens
• The distance u of the object from the centre of the lens is related
to the distance v of the image from the centre of the lens by the
formula

1 1 1
+ =
u v f

where f is the focal length of the lens.

The location of a real image formed by a
convex lens
 3.3 The power of a lens
• For the specific case of the eye, it is necessary to maintain a
constant lens-to- image distance v, as the shape of the eyeball
cannot change and the lens cannot move.
• As an object approaches the lens, therefore, it is necessary to
increase the amount of refraction occurring at the lens. Because:
1 1 1
+ =
u v f
• With fixed v (image distance = size of eyeball), a change in u
requires a corresponding change in f, if the image needs to be in
focus.
 The power of a lens
• The amount of refraction depends on the power of the
lens
• The power P of a lens is related to the focal length by:
1
P=
f
• if the focal length is measured in metres then the unit of
power is the dioptre (D).
• A lens with a large convex curvature (small f) on both
faces will have a greater power than a lens of the same
material with a small convex curvature (large f) on both
faces.
 Concave lens

•The focal length f and the image distance v for a concave

lens both have negative values. As the power of a lens is
calculated from the reciprocal of its focal length in meters,
so the power of a concave lens has a negative value.
•A lens of large negative power (−50 D) diverges light by a
greater amount than a lens of low negative power (−5 D).
 Worked example
a. An object is situated 180 cm in front of a convex lens
of focal length 2.0 cm. Calculate the distance from the
lens at which the image is formed.
b. The object is subsequently moved to a position 12 cm
in front of the convex lens. Find the new image
position.

1 1 1 1 1 1
+ = ⇒ + = ⇒ v = 2.022cm
u v f 180 v 2

1 1 1 1 1 1
+ = ⇒ + = ⇒ v = 2.400cm
u v f 12 v 2
 3.4 The structure of the eye
• The structure of the eye is similar to that of a simple camera.
 The structure of the eye
• The cornea is curved and it is here that most refraction
occurs.
• Light passes through the aqueous humour (a transparent
liquid) and further refracted by the lens before passing
into a dark chamber filled with another transparent fluid
called vitreous humour. (transparent fluid provide
nutrients and also help the eye to maintain its shape).
• Retina: where the image is finally formed on, a light -
sensitive surface at the back of the eye called retina. It
contains millions of nerve endings that stem from two
type of cell known as rods and cones.
 The structure of the eye
• blind spot: there are no nerve endings at this point and
as a consequence no light is detected here.
• This bundle of fibres, called the optic nerve, carries
information to the brain.
• The brain inverts the image and allows an interpretation
that is dependent on the extent to which each rod or
cone ahs been stimulated.
• Fovea: the most sensitive part of the retina. This
contains only cones, and it is here that the greatest detail
is provided when an image is formed on it.
 Worked example
• The refracting system of the eye causes a clear image of an object
at infinity to be formed at the retina. The distance of the retina
from the cornea is 1.9 cm. Assume that the eye acts as a single
thin lens, situated at the front surface of the cornea
a. Calculate the focal length of the
refracting system of this eye.
b. Calculate the power of this eye when
viewing an object at infinity.
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ = ⇒ + = ⇒ f = 1.9cm
u v f ∞ 1.9 f
1 1
P= = = 52.6 D
f 0.019m
 3.5 Accommodation of the eye
• Accommodation: The eye has a structure that enables it
to vary its focal length and hence to focus on an object
first at infinity and then at a point close to the eye.
• The eye is said to be accommodated when focusing on
an object at the near point. (about 25 cm for an average
person)
• The eye is unaccommodated when viewing an object at
the far point. (infinity for an average person)
• The eye of a middle-age adult has its lowest power of
about +59 D when viewing an object at infinity and it
may change its power by about +4 D to +63 D in order
to view an object at the near point.
 3.6 Depth of field and depth of focus
• The depth of field is the range of object distances for
which an acceptably clear image is formed on the retina
without a change in power of the eye lens
 Depth of field and depth of focus
• The range of image distances for a given object in which
an image may be formed and perceived as acceptably
clear by the eye without a change in power is called the
depth of focus.
 3.7 Resolution of the eye
• The resolution of the eye is the angle subtended at the
eye due to light from two point objects that the eye can
just resolve.
 Worked example
• An eye can just detect two objects that are 2.0 mm apart
as being separate when they are at a distance of 10 m.
Calculate the resolution of the eye in radians.

Resolution = 2.0 × 10-3 / 10 = 2.0 × 10-4 radians

Resolution of the eye
 Resolution of the eye
• The ultimate resolution of the eye in practice is
determined by the separation of the cones in the fovea
(~2.5× 10-6 m)

PR 2 × cone spacing
θ= =
eye diameter eye diameter

For an eye of diameter 1.9 cm, the resolution will therefore be

2× 2.5× 10-6 /1.9× 10-2 which is approximately 2.5× 10-4 radians.
 3.8 Response of the eye to variations in
wavelength and intensity

•Rods do not differentiate between colours. Their response

across the visible spectrum is not linear.
 Response of the eye to variations in
wavelength and intensity
• Rods have a greater sensitivity in low light conditions
compared with cones. In low light intensities, the rods
are responsible for most of the vision.
• Vision at very low light intensities is called scotopic
vision. There are no rods on the fovea.
• As the distance from the fovea across the retina’s
surface increases, the proportion of rods to cones
increase. The consequence of this is that in very low-
intensity light conditions, there is no vision directly in
front of the eye and only vague vision around this
region.
 Response of the eye to variations in
wavelength and intensity

Cones require a higher intensity of light in order to operate

efficiently.
 Response of the eye to variations in
wavelength and intensity
• The fovea contains only cones and it is the stimulation
of these cells that is responsible for detail in an image.
• There are three types of cone, (red, green, blue cones)
each having a maximum sensitivity in a different region
of the visible spectrum.
• Cones are responsible for colour discrimination or
photopic vision. The interpretation of the colour of light
falling on an area of the retina is dependent on the
fraction of the absorption of this light by each type of
cone.
Response of the eye to variations in
wavelength and intensity
3.9 Defects of the eye
 short sight (myopia)

(power of eye) + (power of corrective lens)

= (total power of refracting system)
 Worked example
• An eye has a refractive power of 64 D when viewing an
object at infinity. In order to produce a focused image of
the distant object, the power of the eye needs to be 59 D.
Calculate the power and state the type of the corrective
lens required by this eye.
(power of eye) + (power of corrective lens)
= (total power of refracting system)

64 D + P = 59 D
P = −5 D
The power of the corrective lens required is −5 D. The
negative power indicates that the lens is a concave lens.
 Worked example
• Assume that the eye in this example acts as a single thin
lens situated at the front surface of the cornea and that
the cornea-to-retina distance is 0.019 m. When viewing
an object at infinity, the eye of a short-sighted person
forms a blurred image. The lowest power that this
system is able to maintain means that the furthest
distance at which an object may be viewed clearly is
0.60 m (this is far point of the eye).
a. The focal length of this eye when viewing an object at the far
point of 0.60m.
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ = ⇒ + = ⇒ f = 0.018m
u v f 0.600m 0.019m f
b. The power of the eye when viewing an object at its far point
1
P = = 54.3OD
f
c. The power needed by this eye to view an object clearly at
infinity 1 1 1 1 1
P= = + = + = 52.6OD
f u v ∞ 0.019m

d. The power of the corrective lens which, when added to the

unaided eye, will allow the eye to view clearly an object at
infinity
(power of eye) + (power of corrective lens) = (total power of
refracting system)
power of corrective lens = 52.6 OD – 54.3 OD = −1.7
OD
long sight (hypermetropia)
 Worked example
• The eye of a long-sighted person has a near point of 60
cm. Calculate the power of the corrective lens needed to
bring the near point to a distance of 25 cm from the eye.
Assume that the refractive system of the eye acts as a
single thin lens situated at the front of the cornea and
that the distance from the cornea to the retina is 0.019
m. 1 1 1 1 1
P= = + = + = 54.3OD
f u v 0.60m 0.019m
1 1 1 1 1
P= = + = + = 56.6OD
f u v 0.25m 0.019m
The power of the corrective lens
= 56.6 OD − 54.3 OD = 2.3 OD
 astigmatism
• It is very common to find that the cornea is more curved
in one direction compared with another. This is called
astigmatism.
astigmatism
astigmatism

Axis of the cylinder

 Optometrists’ prescription
• For myopic astigmatism:
– Rx: -2.00 -1.00 x180
• For hyperopic astigmatism:
– Rx: +2.00 -1.50 x180
 presbyopia
• Presbyopia is a defect of the eye associated with old age
and is partly due to the hardening of the lens. This
makes it less able to change shape and hence reduces the
ability of the eye to accommodate.
• In a young eye, the lens can change the power of the
optical system of the eye by as much as 14 D. This
range of accommodation may reduce to zero in old age,
causing the eye to experience problems in focusing on
object at infinity as well as at the near point.
 Defects of the eye – colour blindness
• Colour blindness is a defect that affects about 1 in 12
males and 1 in 200 females.
• The degree of colour blindness varies from individual to
individual, but essentially the problem lies in the brain’s
inability to distinguish between signals from one or two
of the three cones.
• The most common form of colour blindness involves the
inability to distinguish between reds and greens.