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Prepared bySunil Mandore

* Machine parts fail when the stresses induced by external forces

exceed their strength.

* The external loads cause internal stresses in the elements * The component size depends on the stresses developed. * Stresses developed in a link subjected to uniaxial loading is
shown in figure

* Loading may be due

a) The energy transmitted by a machine element. b) Dead weight.

c) Inertial forces.
d) Thermal loading. e) Frictional forces.

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* a) Static
load- Load does not change in magnitude and direction and normally increases gradually to a steady value.

* b) Dynamic loadLoad may change in magnitude for example, traffic of varying weight passing a bridge. Load may change in direction, for example, load on piston rod of a double acting cylinder. Vibration and shock are types of dynamic loading.

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* Stress * If
determination in structural or machine components is meaningless unless they are compared with the material strength. the induced stress limiting material strength then the designed component is considered to be safe and the size of the component is obtained.

* The
* The

strength of various materials for engineering applications is determined in the laboratory with standard e.g. tension and compression tests.
load at which the specimen finally ruptures is known as ultimate load and the ratio of load to original cross-sectional area is the ultimate stress. tests are carried out for bending, shear and torsion and the results for different materials are available in handbooks.

* Similar

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* For
design purpose an allowable stress is used in place of the critical stress to take into account the uncertainties including the following:

* 1) Uncertainty in loading. * 2) Inhomogeneity of materials. * 3) Various material behaviors. e.g. corrosion, plastic flow, creep. * 4) Residual stresses due to different manufacturing process. * 5) Fluctuating load (fatigue loading): Experimental results and
plot- ultimate strength depends on number of cycles.

* 6) Safety and reliability. * For ductile materials, the yield strength and for brittle materials
the ultimate strength are taken as the critical stress.

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Factors responsible for evaluation : 1.Effect of failure 2.Type of load : Time , finance, danger to human life. : Static load low fs, Impact Load-high fs, 3.Degree of accuracy in force analysis: Accurate- low fs, 4.Material of component: Homogeneous or ductile low fs, 5.Reliabilty of component: fs increases with reliability. 6.Cost of component: Cost increases as fs increases. 7.Testing of machine element: Actual conditions testing-low fs 8.Servive conditions: Operating conditions like temp., corrosion.

9.Quality of Manufacture: High Mfg. quality leads to low fs selection.

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Selection of factor of safety It is essentially a compromise between the associated additional cost and weight and the benefit of increased safety or/and reliability.

1.25 - 1.5 Material properties known in detail.

Operating conditions known in detail.

Loads and resultant stresses and strains known with high degree of certainty. Material test certificates, proof loading, regular inspection and maintenance. Low weight is important to design.

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1.5 - 2 Known materials with certification under reasonably constant environmental conditions. Subjected to loads and stresses that can be determined using qualified design procedures. Proof tests, regular inspection and maintenance required. 2 - 2.5 Materials obtained for reputable suppliers to relevant standards operated in normal environments . Subjected to loads and stresses that can be determined using checked calculations.

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2.5 - 3 For less tried materials or for brittle materials under average conditions of environment, load and stress. 3-4For untried materials used environment, load and stress. under average conditions of

Should also be used with better-known materials that are to be used in uncertain environments or subject to uncertain stresses.

Usually the factor of safety is kept larger. In aerospace and automobile industries safety factors are kept low (about 1.15 - 1.25) because the costs associated with structural weight are so high.

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In tensile test, specimen is subject to gradually increasing axial force and corresponding deformation is measured. Initially gauge length is marked on the specimen and initial dimensions lo and do are measured before test. After each increment of load, deformation of gauge length is measured. Process continues till fracture occurs and specimen is broken in two pieces.

Results are plotted on a stress-strain graph.

The different properties can be obtained from the graph are as mentioned ahead.

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(iv) Yield Strength ( Y1,Y2)

Plastic deformation occurs and material yields. Strain rapidly increases up to Y1. For mild steel Y1 drops down to Y2 just after yielding starts.

Stress at point Y is called as yield

Strength i.e. maximum stress at which a marked increase in elongation occurs without incre-ase in load.

Red line in graph shows the 0.2% Proof strength for the given material.

(iv) Ultimate tensile strength

After Y2, plastic deformation increases. Material becomes stronger due to strain

hardening.
Now higher load is required for deformation. The stress at point U is ultimate tensile strength i.e. maximum stress that can be reached in tension test.

At point U crack develops in the material and it finally fails at point F, called as

breaking strength.

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Stiffness or rigidity: Ability of material to resist deformation under the
action of external load.

Modulus of elasticity is a measure of stiffness.

: Ability of material to absorb energy when deformed elastically and to release this energy when unloaded.

Resilience

Essential for spring materials.

Represented by area under curve from origin to elastic limit point.

Toughness Essential

: Ability of the material to absorb energy before fracture take place. for machine components which are required o withstand impact loads.

Measured by modulus of toughness

 Malleability: Ability of material to deform to a greater extent before the sign of crack
,when subjected to compressive force.

Malleable metals can be rolled, forged or extruded . Malleability increases with increase in temperature. e.g low carbon steels,Cu,Al Ductility: Ability of material to deform to a greater extent before the sign of crack
,when subjected to tensile force.

Ductile metals can be formed, drawn or bent. Ductility also increases with increase in temperature. Ductile materials are desirable for components subjected to overloads or impact loads. e.g. mild steel,Cu,Al

 Brittleness: Due to this property material shows negligible plastic deformation before
fracture takes place when subjected to tensile force.

Opposite to ductility.
Brittle components fail by sudden fracture. A tensile strain of 5% at fracture in tension test is considered as the dividing line between ductile and brittle material.

e.g. Cast Iron Hardness: Resistance of material to penetration or permanent deformation. Usually indicates resistance to abrasion, scratching, cutting or shaping. Wear resistance is increased of hard parts is improved by case hardening.
e.g. gears, cam & follower.

For steels Sut = 3.45 (BHN) where Sut is ultimate tensile strength in N/mm2

High Temperature Irreversible Deformation. Time dependent permanent deformation. At constant stress, strain continues to increase. Creep deformation is a function of stress level and temperature. Material of bolts, pipes, steam or gas turbine blades of thermal power

plant should have low creep rate.

Creep deformation must be within limit and rupture must not occur during service life. a specified length of time without excessive deformation.

Creep strength: maximum stress that the material can withstand for Creep
rupture strength: maximum stress that the material can withstand for a specified length of time without rupture.