Unit-1

Indicating & Recording Instruments

1
It is often necessary to have a permanent record of a
phenomenon being investigated, e.g., in industrial & research
processes, it is required to monitor continuously the condition,
state, or value of the process variables such as flow, pressure,
temperature, current, & voltage etc.
A recorder, thus, records electrical/non-electrical quantities as
a function of time
This record may be written/printed and later on can be
examined & analyzed to obtain a better understanding and
control of the process
Currents/voltages can be recorded directly while non-electrical
quantities are recorded indirectly by first converting them to
equivalent currents/voltages with the help of sensors or
transducers
Introduction to Recorders
2
Classification of Recorders
Depending on how the data acquired is recorded? The
recorders are classified as follow:

(A) Analog Recorders:
When we are dealing with a wholly analog system
Broadly, analog recorders are classified into:
(1) Graphic Recorders
(2) Oscillographic Recorders
(3) Magnetic-Tape Recorders

(B) Digital Recorder:
For the system whose output is in digital form
3
(1) Graphic Recorders
Generally, graphic recorders are devices which display &
store pen-and-ink record of the history of some physical
event on a chart

Basic Elements of Graphic Recorder:
Chart for displaying & storing the recorded information
A stylus or pen moving in proper relationship to
paper/chart
A suitable means of Interconnection or Interface to
couple the stylus to the source of information

Graphic recorders may be classified into:
(a) Strip chart recorders
(b) X-Y recorders
4
Strip Chart Recorders
5
A strip chart recorder records one or more variables w.r.t. time
It is an X-t recorder, which consists of:
(i) A long roll of graph paper
(ii) A system for driving the paper at some selected speed (usually 1-100
mm/s) by means of speed selector switch
(iii) A stylus, moving horizontally in proportion to the quantity being recorded
(iv) A stylus driving mechanism which moves the stylus in nearly exact
replica of the quantity being recorded

The mechanisms used for marking the marks on the paper are as
follow:
Marking with ink filled stylus
Marking with heated stylus
Chopper Bar
Electronic Stylus
Electrostatic Stylus
Optical Marking Method
Strip Chart Recorders (-contd.)
6
Marking with Ink Filled Stylus
The stylus is filled with ink by gravity or capillary
actions
The pointer supports an ink reservoir & a pen, or
contain a capillary connection between the pen &
pen reservoir
This method is most commonly employed because
ordinary paper can be used and thus the cost is low
Other advantages:
Operation over a very wide range of
recording speeds is possible
Little friction between the stylus tip & the
paper

Disadvantages:
Ink splatters at high speeds, batches at low
speeds, & clogs when the stylus is at rest
The frequency limit of recorders incorporating
this method of writing is only few Hz
7
Marking with Heated Stylus
Some recorders use a heated stylus
which writes on a special paper (a
thin white wax like coating on a black
paper)
This overcomes the difficulties
encountered in ink writing system
Quite reliable & offers high contrast
traces
Sophisticated records, having a
frequency response upto 40 Hz, are
available
Since the paper is a special one, the
cost is high
This method cant be used for
recording certain processes which
produce heat & indirectly affect the
recordings
8
Chopper Bar
If a chart made of a pressure sensitive paper is used then a
V-shaped pointer is passed under a chopper bar which
presses the pen into the paper once per sec (or any other
selected interval) thus marking a series of marks on the
paper
As this system is not purely continuous, thus it is suitable for
recording some slowly varying quantities (e.g. having a
variation of 1 cycle per hour)
9
Electronic Stylus
This method uses a paper
with a special coating
which is sensitive to current
When the current is
conducted from the stylus
to the paper, a trace
appears on the paper
The electronic stylus
marking method has a wide
range of marking speeds,
low stylus friction, & a long
stylus life
10
Electrostatic Stylus
This method uses a stylus which produces a high voltage
discharge, thereby, producing a permanent trace on an electro-
sensitive paper
This arrangement has been incorporated in a recorder having a
50 mm wide chart with 9 voltage ranges (10 mV/mm 5 V/mm),
8 chart speeds (300 600 mm/s), & a frequency response of 60
Hz at maximum amplification of 1 dB
11
Optical Marking Method
This method uses a beam of light to write on a photosensitive
paper
This method allows higher frequencies to be recorded and
permits a relatively large chart speed with good resolution

Disadvantages:
Paper cost is very high
Photographic paper must be developed before a record
is available
Not suitable for processes where instantaneous
monitoring is to be done
12
Strip Chart Recorders: Tracing Systems
To produce graphical
representation of any quantity, two
types of tracing systems used
are:
Curvilinear Tracing System
Rectilinear Tracing System

Curvilinear Tracing System:
In this system, the stylus is
mounted a central pivot & moves
through an arc which allows a full-
width chart marking
If the stylus makes a full range
recording, the line drawn across
the chart will be curved & the time
intervals will be along these curved
segments
13
Curvilinear Tracing System
This type of system is
used on many recorders
with PMMC
galvanometers actuating
the stylus filled with ink as
shown in fig. (28.50)
The disadvantage of this
method of tracing is the
charts are difficult to
analyze because of
curved time base lines
14
Rectilinear Tracing System
Fig. (28.51) shows rectilinear system of tracing
This system produces a straight line across the width of the chart
Here, the stylus is actuated by a drive cord over pulleys to produce
forward/reverse motion as determined by drive mechanism
The stylus may be actuated by a self balancing potentiometer
system, a
photoelectric
deflection system,
a photoelectric
potentiometer
system, or a
bridge balance
system
This is usually
used with thermal
or electric writing
15
Types of Strip Chart Recorders
There are two different types of strip chart recorders:
Galvanometer Type
Null Type

Galvanometer Type Strip Chart Recorder:
The deflection in this recorder is produced by a galvanometer
(dArsonval) which produces a torque on account of a current passing
through its coil
The current is proportional to the quantity being measured
When the pointer comes to rest because of controlling torque exerted
by springs, the stylus also comes to rest and thus the value of the
quantity is recorded
This type of recorder is not useful for recording fast variations in
current/voltage/power and only records the average values
The range of operation is from few mA/mV to several mA/mV
16
These moving galvanometer type recorder is comparatively
inexpensive instrument having a narrow bandwidth of 0-10 Hz and
a sensitivity of 0.4 mV/mm
For measurement of smaller voltage, linear amplifiers are used

Null Type Strip Chart Recorder:
Many recorders operate on the principle whereby a change in its
input upsets the balance of the measuring circuit of the recorder
As a result of this unbalance, an error signal is produced that
operates some device which restores balance or brings the system
to null condition
The amount of movement of this balance restoring device is an
indication of the magnitude of the error signal and the direction of
the movement is an indication of the direction of the quantity being
measured has deviated from normal
The signal from the transducer/sensor may take any of the forms: voltage
(ac or dc), current (ac or dc), resistance, inductance, or capacitance

Types of Strip Chart Recorders (-contd.)
17
Null Type Recorders
There are a number of null type strip chart recorders:
(i) Potentiometric Recorders
(ii) Bridge Recorders
(iii) LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) Recorder

Note:
The principle of operation for all these recorders is same, i.e.,
to obtain null condition
18
Potentiometric Recorders
The basic disadvantage of a galvanometer type of recorder is
that it has a low input impedance
A simple method of overcoming the input impedance problem
is to use an amplifier between the input terminals & the
display/indicating instrument
However, this technique, while producing a high input
impedance (to reduce loading effect) & improved sensitivity
(4V/mm), results in an instrument having low accuracy
The accuracy can be improved if the input signal is compared
with a reference voltage by using a potentiometer circuit
The error signal (difference between the input signal & the
potentiometer voltage) is amplified and is used to energize
the field coil of a dc motor, which moves over the
potentiometer in the appropriate direction to reduce the
magnitude of the error signal and to obtain balance
19
The wiper comes to rest when the unknown signal voltage is
balanced against the voltage of the potentiometer
The chart drive for most potentiometer recorders is obtained
from a motor synchronized to power line frequency
Different speeds may be obtained by using a gear train that
uses different gear ratios
The most common application of the potentiometric recorders
is for recording & control of process temperature
Potentiometric Recorders (-contd.)
20
Single Point & Multipoint Recorders
Most of the graphic records show variation of one variable (e.g.
temperature) with time
The instruments that record changes of only one measured variable
w.r.t. time are called single-point recorders and the trace of such
instruments is usually in the form of single continuous curve
However, in process industry, it becomes necessary to record
simultaneously variables like pressure, temperature, flow rate, liquid
level etc.
This feature may be performed either by having several pens
(maximum four) which overlap each other & record the inputs
simultaneously, or by replacing the pen by print wheel geared to a
selector switch so that when a particular input is connected to the
potentiometer balance circuit, a point plus its identifying character is
printed on the chart
This form of recorder is called a multi-point recorder and may have
as many as 24 inputs, with traces displayed in 6 colors
21
X-Y Recorders
22
An X-Y recorder is an instrument which gives a graphic record of the
relationship between two variables, i.e., one emf is plotted as a
function of another emf
Here, one self-balancing potentiometer circuit moves the recording
pen in x-direction while another self-balancing potentiometer circuit
moves the recording pen in y-direction and the paper remains
stationary
An X-Y recorder consists of a pair of servo-systems, driving a stylus
in two axes through a proper sliding pen & moving arm arrangement,
with reference to a stationary paper chart
Attenuators are used to bring the input signals to the levels (full scale
range: 0.5 mV) acceptable by the recorder
As shown in fig (28.53), error signals (the difference between the
input signals & reference voltage) are fed to a choppers which
convert dc signals to ac signals
X-Y Recorders (-contd.)
23
The signals are then amplified in order to actuate servomotors
which are used to balance the system & hold it in balance as
the value of the quantity being recorded changes
Thus, we get a record of one variable w.r.t. another
In some X-Y recorders, one self-balancing potentiometer
controls the position of the rolls (i.e. the paper) while another
self-balancing potentiometer controls the position of the
recording pen
An X-Y recorder may have a sensitivity of 10 V/mm, a
slewing speed of 1.5 m/s, a frequency response about 6 Hz for
both axes, chart size of 250 x 180 mm, and accuracy of about
0.3%
X-Y Recorders (-contd.)
24
Uses:
(i) Speed-torque characteristics of motors
(ii) Plotting of characteristics of zener diodes, rectifiers, transistors
(iii) Regulation curve (output versus input voltage) of power
supplies
(iv) Electrical characteristics of materials such as resistance
versus temperature
(v) Plotting stress versus strain curves, hysteresis curves etc.
X-Y Recorders (-contd.)
25
Oscillographic Recorders
Ultraviolet Recorders:
26
Ultraviolet Recorders (-contd.)
These are basically electromechanical oscillographic recorders
consist of a number of galvanometer (moving coil) elements
mounted in a single magnet block as shown in figure
The galvanometer uses a source of ultraviolet (u.v.) light in
place of white light and a paper sensitive to u.v. light is used
for producing a trace for recording
The u.v. light is projected on the paper with the help of mirrors
attached to the moving coils (pencil galvanometers)
As shown in figure, when a current is passed through the
galvanometer coil, it deflects under the influence of magnetic
field of permanent magnet
The u.v. light falling on the mirrors is reflected & projected on
the u.v. light sensitive paper through a lens & mirror system
The paper is driven past the moving light spot & thus a trace of
variation of current w.r.t. time is produced
27
The u.v. sensitive paper may be processed & photo-developed,
permanized or photocopied
The u.v. recorders are multichannel & have as many as 25
channels
Since, each channel may produce a 10 cm wide p-p trace on a
30 cm wide paper, there will be considerable overlapping of
traces produced by different channels
Therefore, it is essential to provide an identification mark for
each trace so as to avoid confusion
A simplified identification process is to interrupt each trace
momentarily in turn & to coincide this interruption with a
character marked on the side of record by passing u.v. light
through cutouts of the character
Ultraviolet Recorders (-contd.)
28
The u.v. recorder may be used for dc & ac signals having a
fundamental frequency upto 400 to 500 Hz
The frequency range depends on the recorder being used and
paper driving speeds
The recording of high frequency inputs is possible if recorders
with high paper speeds of about 10 m/s are available
These recorders are also used for recording the magnitude of
low frequency signals which cant be measured with analog
(pointer) type instruments
Applications:
Typical applications of u.v. recorders are in recording:
(i) output of transducers, (ii) control system performance, &
(iii) regulation transients of generators
Ultraviolet Recorders (-contd.)
29
Magnetic Tape Recorders
Take up
Real
30
It is frequently desirable & in many cases necessary to record
data in such a way that they can be retrieved/reproduced in
electrical form again
The most common & useful way of achieving this is through
the use of magnetic tape recording
Generally, the magnetic tape recorders are used at high
frequency
A magnetic tape recorder consists of the following basic
components:
(i) Recording Head, (ii) Magnetic Tape, (iii) Reproducing Head,
(iv) Tape Transport Mechanism, & (v) Conditioning Devices
Magnetic Tape Recorders (-contd.)
31
(i) Recording Head:
This device responds to an electrical signal in such a manner
that a magnetic pattern is created in a magnetizable medium
A fine air gap of length 5-15 m is shunted by passing the
magnetic tape
A current in the coil causes a flux of the same shape to
bridge the air gap & hence to pass through the magnetic
tape, thereby, magnetizing the iron oxide (Fe
2
O
3
) particles as
they pass the air gap
The state of magnetization of the oxide as it leaves the air
gap is retained, thus the actual recording takes place at the
trailing edge of the gap
Any signal recorded on the tape appears as a magnetic
pattern dispersed in space along the tape similar to the
original coil current variation with time
Magnetic Tape Recorders (-contd.)
32
(ii) Magnetic Tape:
Magnetic tape (12.7 mm wide & 25.4 m thick) is composed
of a coating of fine magnetic iron oxide particles (Fe
2
O
3
) on a
plastic ribbon
The magnetic particles conform to the magnetic pattern
induced in them & retain it
(iii) Reproducing Head:
The reproducing head detects the magnetic pattern stored in
them & converts it back to original electrical signal
Reproducing is similar in appearance to that of a recording
head
(iv) Tape Transport Mechanism:
This mechanism moves the tape along the recording of the
reproducing heads at constant speed
Magnetic Tape Recorders (-contd.)
33
The tape mechanism must be capable of handling the tape
during various modes of operation without straining,
distortion, or wearing out the tape
This requires that the mechanism must use arrangements to
guide the tape past the magnetic heads with great precision,
maintain proper tension, & obtain sufficient tape to magnetic
head contact
Arrangement for fast winding & reversing are also provided
A capstan & pinch roller are used to drive the tape
(v) Conditioning Devices:
These devices consist of amplifiers & filters required for
modifying the signal to a format that can be properly recorded
on a tape
Magnetic Tape Recorders (-contd.)
34
Working Principle:
When a magnetic tape is
passed through a recording
head, any signal recorded on
the tape appears as magnetic
pattern dispersed in space
along the tape, similar to the
original coil current variation
with time
The same tape when passed
through reproduce/playback
head produces variations in the
reluctance of the winding,
thereby, inducing a voltage in
the winding dependent upon
the direction of magnetization &
its magnitude on the magnetic
tape
Magnetic Tape Recorders (-contd.)
35
The induced voltage is proportional to rate of change of flux
linkages
Therefore, the emf induced in the winding of reproducing head is
proportional to rate of change of the level of magnetization on the
rate , where N is number of turns of the winding

put on the reproduce head
Since, the voltage in the reproduce head is proportional to , the
reproduce head acts as a differentiator
For example, let the original signal be A sin(t)
The current in the record head winding & the flux produced will be
proportional to this voltage, i.e., = K
1
A sin(t) (1)
where K
1
is constant
Assuming that the tape retains this flux pattern & regenerates it in
the reproduce head, the voltage induced in the reproduce head
winding is ... (2)
Magnetic Tape Recorders (-contd.)
|
.
|

\
|
|

dt
d
N e ., e . i
rep
dt
d|
) t cos( NA K
dt
d
KN e
2 rep
e e =
|
=
36
Thus the output signal from the reproduce head is derivative
of the input signal
The magnitude of the output signal is not only proportional to
the flux recorded on the tape but also the frequency of the
recorded signal
Since, the recording is done at constant current level for all
frequencies, and therefore, in order to have an overall flat
frequency response (i.e., a high fidelity), the reproduce head
characteristics and the characteristics of the amplifier
connected in the reproduce head circuit must be
complementary (i.e., the amplitude must have a response of -
6dB/octave as shown in figure)
This process of compensation is known as equalization
Magnetic Tape Recorders (-contd.)
37
Advantages:
1. Magnetic tape recorders have a wide frequency range from dc to
several MHz
2. They have a wide dynamic range which exceeds 50dB, this
permits the linear recording from full scale signal level to
approximately 0.3% of full scale
3. They have a low distortion
4. The magnitude of the electrical input signal is stored in magnetic
memory and this signal can be reproduced whenever desired
5. The recorded signal is immediately available with no time loss in
processing, the recorded signal can be reproduced (played back)
as many times as desired without loss of signal
6. When the information has been processed, the tape can be erased
& reused to record a new set of data
Magnetic Tape Recorders (-contd.)
38
7. Magnetic tape recording permits multi-channel recording, i.e., a
tape facilitates the continuous record of a number of signals to be
made simultaneously, which is a great advantage especially when
recording transient & once only signals
8. The use of magnetic tape recorders provides a convenient method
of changing the time base, i.e., the data may be recorded at very
fast speeds (1.52 or 3.05 m/s) and played back at speeds (2.38 or
4.76 cm/s) slow enough to be recorded with low frequency
recorders like graphic recorders

Magnetic Tape Recorders (-contd.)
39
Digital Tape Recorders
Digital magnetic tapes are often used as storage devices in
digital processing applications
Digital tape units are of two types:
(a) Incremental digital tape recorders
(b) Synchronous Digital Tape Recorders

(a) Incremental Digital Tape Recorders:
They are commanded to step ahead (increment) for each
digital character to be recorded
Input data may be at a relatively slow, or even discontinuous
rate
In this way, each character is equally & precisely spaced
along the tape
40
Digital Tape Recorders (-contd.)
(b) Synchronous Digital Tape Recorders:
In these, the tape moves at a constant speed (about 75 cm/s)
while a large number of data characters are recorded
The data inputs are at precise rates upto 10s of thousand
characters/second
The tape is brought to speed, recording takes place, and tape
is brought to a fast stop
In this way, a block of characters (a record) is written with
each character spaced equally along the tape
Blocks of data are usually separated from each other by an
erased area on the tape called the record gap
The synchronous tape unit starts & stops the tape for each
block of data to be recorded
41
Digital Tape Recorders (-contd.)
Digital Recording Method:
In the above two methods, the characters are represented on
magnetic tape by the coded combination of symbols (bits) 0 & 1 by
the IBM-NRZ format
This format uses the change in flux direction on the tape to indicate
symbol 1 & no change in flux direction to indicate symbol 0
42
In digital data recording, a recording field of sufficient amplitude
to produce magnetic saturation through the complete tape layer
thickness is reversed to record 1 & kept constant to record 0
Reproduction of this recording is achieved by using a timing
signal obtained from a separate clock track corresponding to the
time when a 1 or 0 symbols are recorded
In practice, larger fields are usually employed to ensure more
reliable recordings on a coated thicker tape & also to minimize
the effect of dropouts (due to some random surface
inhomogenities in tape coatings because of dirt or poor
manufacture, some portions of the tape may not be perfectly
recorded, which is called dropout)
As a check on dropout errors, most tape systems include a parity
check
Digital Tape Recorders (-contd.)
43
Advantages of Digital DataTape Recording:
High accuracy
Insensitivity to tape speed
Use of simple conditioning equipment
The information is fed directly to a digital computer for
processing & control

Disadvantages of Digital DataTape Recording:
Poor tape economy
The information from transducers is in analog form, hence an
ADC is required
A high quality tape & tape transport mechanism are required
Digital Tape Recorders (-contd.)
44
Display devices provide a visual display of numbers, letters, &
symbols in response to electrical input, and serve as
constituents of an electronic display system
The basic element in a digital display device is the display for a
single character because a multiple character display is
nothing but a group of single character displays

Classification of Displays:
In general, the displays are classified in a number of ways:
1. According to methods conversion of electrical data into visible light:
(i) Active displays(Light Emitters) CRTs, LEDs, Gas Discharge Plasma, etc.
(ii) Passive Displays (Light Controllers) LCDs
2. According to the Applications:
(i) Analog Displays Bar-graphic displays (CRT)
(ii) Digital Displays Nixies tubes, Alphanumeric, LEDs
Digital Display Devices
45
3. According to display size & physical dimensions:
(i) Symbolic Displays Alphanumeric, Nixie tubes, etc.
(ii) Console Displays CRTs, LEDs, etc.
(ii) Large Screen Display Enlarged Projection Systems
4. According to the display format:
(i) Direct View Type (Flat Panel Planar) Segmental, Dotmatrix, CRTs
(ii) Stacked Electrode (Non-planar Type) Nixie Tubes
5. In Terms of Resolution & Legibility of Characters
(i) Simple Single Indicator
(ii) Multi-element Displays

Digital Display Devices (-contd.)
46
Segmental Displays
The segmental displays may be either 7 or 14 segmental ones
depending upon whether numeric or alphanumeric displays are
required
(i) Seven Segmental Display:
This is used for numeric display, and consists of 7-segments a, b, c,
d, e, f, & g
It displays the digits (0 to 9) by illuminating proper segments from the
group
The display is incandescent & operates on low voltages ( 5 12 V)
and requires about 5 50 mA current when using LEDs
LCDs are also used for segmental displays
47
(ii) Fourteen Segmental Display:
For display of alphanumeric characters (both numerals as
well as alphabets) a 14-segmental display unit is used by
illuminating the proper combination of segments
Segmental Displays (-contd.)
48
Dot Matrices
Dot matrices may be used for display of numeric & alpha-numeric
characters
(i) A 3x5 Dot Matrix:
A 3x5 dot matrix may be used for display of numeric characters
(ii) Dot Matrix Utilizing 27 dots:
Another system using 27 dots displays the numeric characters
The dots may be square or round with 0.4 mm side or diameter
LEDs or LCDs are used for display of dots
(iii) 5x7 Dot Matrix:
For display of alphanumeric characters a 5x7 matrix is used
49
Dot Matrices (-contd.)
50
Rear Projection Display
A typical block diagram of a projection display system is shown in figure
In a rear projection display system, the projector is on one side of a
translucent screen & the viewer is on the other
The image signal source & screen are not the part of the display system
Each of the 12 incandescent lamps inside the projector light source when
energized by the input signal illuminates a different part of the filmstrip
The lens system (optics) projects the illuminated part of the film onto a
viewing screen
Image Signal Source Controller
Image Engine Optics Screen
Light Source Optics
Projector
Fig. Projector Schematic
51
Rear Projection Display (-contd.)
52
Nixie Tube
NIXI = Numeric Indicator
eXperimental No. I
A nixie tube is an electronic
device (non-planar) for displaying
numbers or other information, in
the form of a glass tube
containing multiples cathodes and
a wire mesh anode, filled with
neon & often a little mercury
and/or argon at small fraction of
atmospheric pressure
The most common form of nixie
tube has 10 cathodes (thin wires)
in the shapes of the numerals 0-9
(and occasionally a decimal point,
but there are also types that show
various letters, signs, & symbols
53
Nixie Tube (-contd.)
54
Nixie Tube (-contd.)
55
In its normal operation, the anode is returned to +ve dc supply
(150-220 V) through a suitable current limiting resistor, the
value of the supply being greater than the worst-case
breakdown voltage of the gas within the tube
The gas in the vicinity of the appropriate cathode glows when
the cathode is switched to ground potential
Since 10 cathodes have to be associated with single anode
inside the glass bulb, they have necessarily to be stacked in
different planes
This requires different voltages for different cathodes to enable
the glow discharge
Nixie tubes have the following characteristics:
(1) The numerals are usually large (typically 15-30 mm high) and
appear in the same base line for in-line read-out
Nixie Tube (-contd.)
56
(2) Nixie tubes are single digit devices with or without a decimal
point
(3) The selected cathode carries current in the range of 1-5 mA
(4) The Nixie tube can be pulse operated & hence can be used in
multiplexed displays

Applications:
Nixies were used as numeric displays in early digital frequency
counters, voltmeters, & many other types of technical
equipments
They also appeared in costly digital time displays in research
and military establishments
Later, alphanumeric versions in 14-segment display format
found use in airport arrival/departure signs & stock-ticker
displays
Nixie Tube (-contd.)
57
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
LED is a diode that gives off visible light when it is biased properly & the
mechanism of electromagnetic radiation (injection luminescence) takes
place
This occurs in two steps:
(i) injection of minority carriers across the junction, and
(ii) the radiative recombination of minority carriers
Two types of radiative recombination mechanisms are commonly
encountered in LEDs depending upon the band-gap characteristics of the
semiconductor material used, i.e.,
(a) direct recombination, & (b) indirect recombination
The emission of photons as a result of recombination of electrons & holes is
possible only when both energy & momentum are conserved
The simplest & most probable recombination process will be that where the
electrons & holes have the same (i.e., zero) value of momentum which is
the case of direct band-gap materials (e.g., GaP, GaN, GaAsP, Si
2
N
3
etc)
and the released light energy (photon in visible spectrum)
58
Light Emitting Diode (LED) (-contd.)
In indirect band-gap materials (e.g., Si, Ge, SiC, etc.) the conduction
band minima and valence band maxima occur at different values of
momentum and the recombination of electrons & holes result into
emission of energy into heat (phonons, which conserve momentum)
and light (photons, not in visible range)
The probability of recombination in this case is obviously much lower
than that in direct band-gap semiconductors
GaP is mainly used for emissions in the visible spectrum, it has a
gap energy of 2.26 eV and can be doped with ZnO to give red light
or with N
2
to give green light
LEDs are also housed in plastic bulb (the round end) that
concentrate the light in a particular direction
LEDs are used extensively in segmental & dot matrix displays of
numeric & alphanumeric characters
59
Light Emitting Diode (LED) (-contd.)
Advantages of LEDs in Electronic Displays:
(i) LEDs are miniature in size & they can be stacked
together to form numeric & alphanumeric displays in
high density matrix
(ii) The light output from an LED is a function of current
flowing through it, therefore, intensity of light emitted
can be smoothly controlled
(iii) LEDs require moderate power (1.2 V of emf & 20 mA
of current) for their operation (full brightness)
(iv) LEDs are very fast as they have switching time less
than 1 ns
(v) LEDs are rugged & can therefore withstand shocks
and vibrations, they can also operate over a wide
range of temperature (0-70
0
C)
(vi) LEDs dont have a filament that will burn out, so they
last much longer (more than 100000 hrs)
60
Light Emitting Diode (LED) (-contd.)
61
Light Emitting Diode (LED) (-contd.)
62
Light Emitting Diode (LED) (-contd.)
63
Light Emitting Diode (LED) (-contd.)
64
Light Emitting Diode (LED) (-contd.)
65
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
A liquid crystal is a material (normally organic for LCDs) that flows like a
liquid but whose molecular structure has some properties associated with
solids, i.e., liquid crystals are substances that exist in an odd state: sort of
like a liquid & sort of like a solid
Thus, their molecules tend to maintain their orientation (like the molecules
in a solid) but also move around to different positions (like the molecules in
a liquid)
Depending on the temperature & particular nature of a substance, liquid
crystals can be in one of the several distinct phases, whose nematic phase
makes LCDs possible
Liquid crystals are affected by electric current
A particular type of nematic liquid crystal, called twisted nematic (TN), is
naturally twisted and applying a varying electric current to these liquid
crystals will untwist them to varying degrees
LCDs use these liquid crystals because they react predictably to electric
current in such a way as to control light passage
66
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) (-contd.)
Types of LCDs:
(1) Dynamic Scattering Type (Nematic Crystal)
(2) Field Effect Type (Twisted Nematic Crystal)

(1) Dynamic Scattering Type (Nematic Crystal):
As shown in fig. 1 (a) & (b), the individual molecules have a rod like
appearance
The liquid crystals are layered between glass sheets with transparent
electrodes (Indium Oxide) deposited on the inside faces
Under no bias condition, the incident light will pass through & the liquid
crystal structure appears clear
If a voltage (6-20 V) is applied across the conducting surfaces, the
molecular arrangement is disturbed and regions of different refractive
indices are established which reflect the incident light in different directions
at the interface of different refractive indices
This phenomenon is referred to as dynamic scattering and causes a
frosted-glass (bright) appearance

67
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) (-contd.)
The LCD does not generate its own light but depends on a external or
internal light source
Therefore, during the day or in lighted areas, a reflector can be put behind
LCD to reflect light back (reflective mode) & under dark condition, the LCD
must have its own internal light source either behind or side of LCD
(transmissive mode)

(2) Field Effect Type (Twisted Nematic Crystal):
The construction of field effect LCD is similar to that of dynamic scattering
type with the exception that two thin polarizing optical filters are placed at
the outside of each glass sheet
Similar to dynamic scattering LCD, the field effect can be operated in the
reflective or transmissive mode
In case of transmissive field effect LCD, the internal light source is on the
right & the viewer on the left as shown in fig. 2(a)
Only the vertical component of the incident light can pass through the
vertical polarizer
68
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) (-contd.)
In between the two walls of the liquid crystal, there is a general drift from
one polarization to the other
The left-hand vertical light polarizer only permits the passage of vertical
polarized light
If there is no applied voltage then the viewer sees a uniformly dark pattern
across the entire display but when a threshold voltage is applied (2-8 V), the
rod like molecules align themselves with the field (perpendicular to the wall)
and the light passes directly through without the 90
0
shift and can pass
through the second vertically polarizer and the light area is seen by the
viewer
Through proper excitation of the segments of each digit, the pattern will
appear
In case of reflective type field effect LCD, the horizontally polarized light at
the far left encounters a horizontally polarized filter and passes through to
the other vertical polarization, & returned to the observer
If there is no applied voltage, there is a uniformly lit display
69
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) (-contd.)
The application of a voltage results in a vertically polarized incident light
encountering a horizontally polarized filter at the left which will not be able
to pass through and be reflected which results a dark area on the crystal
and the pattern
Field effect LCDs are normally used when a source of energy is prime
factor (e.g. in watches, cell phones, portable instruments, etc.), since they
consume very small power (in W range) as compared to the dynamic
scattering types (in mW range)
The cost is higher for field effect LCDs and their height is limited to about 2,
while dynamic scattering LCDs are available upto 8 in height
70
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) (-contd.)
Advantages of LCDs:
They have low power (in W) consumption as compared to LEDs (in
mW)
They have low cost
Since the color generated by LCD units is dependent on the source
of illumination, so there is greater range of color choice (16.8 million
colors)

Disadvantages of LCDs:
They are very slow devices, having response time in the range of
100-300 ms
They occupy a large area
When operated on dc, their life-span is quite small because LCDs
degrade chemically, therefore, they are used with ac supplies having
a frequency less than 500 Hz
71
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) (-contd.)
72
73
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) (-contd.)
74
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) (-contd.)
75
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) (-contd.)
76
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) (-contd.)
77
Segmental Gas Discharge Displays
Segmented gas discharge displays work on the principle of gas discharge
glow similar to Nixie tubes
They are mostly available in 7 or 14-segment form to display numeric or
alphanumeric characters
As shown in figure, each segment (including decimal point) of the 7-
segment display formed on a base has a separate cathode
The anode is common to each member of 7-segment group, which is
deposited on the covering face plate
The space between the anode & cathodes contains the gas
For each group of segments, a keep alive cathode is also provided, which
improves the switching speed of the display by passing a small constant
current (few A) through it and acts as source of ions
Pins are connected to the electrodes at the rear of the base plate with the
help of which external connections can be made
Figure shows the structure of a 7-segment display making the use of gas
discharge plasma

78
Segmental Gas Discharge Displays (-contd.)
Back electrodes of the thick film type serve as cathode segments & front
electrodes of the thin film type serve as transparent anodes
A gas (typically Neon) is filled in the discharge space between the cathode
& anode segment
The gas is struck between the cathode & anode of a chosen segment so
that the cathode glow provides the illumination & characters can be
displayed by activating the appropriate segments

Advantages & Disadvantages:
The power requirements of such devices are more or less in the same
range as those for Nixie tubes (i.e., the power consumed is extremely small)
The major disadvantage of this gas discharge tube is that high voltage (150-
220 V) is required for operating
Therefore, high voltage transistors (special ICs) are required as switches for
the cathodes
79
Segmental Gas Discharge Displays (-contd.)
80
Segmental Gas Discharge Displays (-contd.)