ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION &

CONTROL SYSTEMS
(WLE-306)
Presented by:
Mr. Shahnawaz Uddin
Course Contents
UNIT-I: INDICATING RECORDING INSTRUMENT

Classification of different types of recorders (graphics
recorder, strip chart recorder, simple point recorder, multi
point recorder, ultraviolet recorder, magnetic tape recorders,
digital tape recorders) and their applications. Classification of
display (7-segmental displays, 14-segmental displays, 3x5
dot matrix), Nixie tube, light emitting diode, liquid crystal
display.
UNIT-II: ANALOG & DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS

Merits of electronic voltmeter, DC voltmeter with direct
coupled amplifiers, AC voltmeter using rectifiers, Range of
circuit-voltage and resistance, specifications of an electronic
voltmeter.
Schematic diagram and working principle of digital voltmeter
(ramp type, integrating, successive approximation),
Constructional features and working principle of digital multi-
meter, Principle of measurement and schematic diagram for
time, frequency and period measurement by using universal
counter.
Course Contents (-contd.)
UNIT-III: TRANSDUCERS & INSTRUMENTATION
AMPLIFIER

Basic principles of transducer, primary and secondary
transducers, operation & construction of different type of
transducers for measurement of force, strain, pressure,
temperature, liquid & gas flow, pH value; Instrumentation
Amplifier.
Course Contents (-contd.)
UNIT-IV: MISCELLANEOUS INSTRUMENTS

Principle of measuring amplitude distortion, distortion meter
and harmonic analyzer, Block diagram and description of
spectrum analyzer and Q-meter, Elements of
instrumentation system of recording by electrical signals,
e.g., EEG, ECG, & Ultrasound.
Course Contents (-contd.)
UNIT-V: AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS

Block diagram of open and closed loop control system;
Feed back and its effect on system performance; Stability
and external disturbance; Types of feed back control
systems; Direct differential equations of physical systems;
Block diagram algebra and signal flow graph.
Course Contents (-contd.)
RECOMMENDED BOOKS
A course in Electrical & Electronics Measurements &
Instrumentation by A.K. Sawhney; Dhanpat Rai & Co (P) Ltd,
New Delhi

Electronic Instrumentation by H S Kalsi; Tata McGraw-Hill
Education, N. Delhi

Control System Engineering (2
nd
Edition) by I J Nagrath & M
Gopal; New Age International (P) Ltd. Publishers, N. Delhi
What is a System?

A system is a collection of components arranged in an
orderly fashion which is goal-oriented
The system is also referred to as the plant or process

Examples of system control include:

- climate control in a building
- cruise control in a car
- servo motor control for a robotic arm
- altitude control of a plane
- oil refining process
- pressure control in a G-suit (bio feedback)
- human movement (walking, running, etc.)
Introduction
Linear Time Invariant (LTI) System
In a Linear Time-Invariant System ( LTI System) , the
Superposition Principle holds true and the parameters of the
systems do not vary with time

In a linear system with an input expressed as a sum of
signals, the system response will be equal to the sum of the
Individual responses to the input signal components
(Superposition Principle)

The graph to the right illustrates
this principle:
f(x
1
+ x
2
) = f(x
1
) + f(x
2
)
NOTE:

All physical systems' parameters will vary if observed for a
sufficiently long period of time

In reality, these changes would rarely occur within the lifespan
of the process

Also, real-life systems operate under constraints or limits,
such as available power or laws of physics

For example, when the maximum engine power in a car is
reached, it cant go any faster, even if the input signal (i.e. the
position of accelerator) is still increasing

Similarly, while a car can drive up a slope, it cant drive up a
vertical wall
Linear Time Invariant (LTI) System (-contd.)
Examples of Systems
Control System
A Control System is a type of means by which any quantity of interest in
a machine, mechanism, or other equipment is maintained or altered in
accordance with a desired manner

In other words, a Control System consists of subsystem and plant
assembled for the purpose of controlling the outputs of the plants

Any control system consist of four elements:

The input is the desired response of a control system
The output is the actual response of a control system
Subsystem is any system that helps controlling the output of the
control system
A plant is a system in which its output is the one to be controlled
Examples of Control Systems
Desired
temp
Actual
temp
Temp
Setting
knob
Air
Conditioned
Control System
Room
On
Off
Switch
Desired
light
Actual
Light
On-Off
Switch
Bulb
Control System
Room
Examples of Control Systems (-contd.)
Examples of Control Systems (-contd.)
Automatic Control System
An Automatic Control System is a collection of components
working together under the direction or supervision of some
machine intelligence

In most cases, electronic circuits provide the intelligence, and
electromechanical components such as sensors and motors
provide the interface to the physical world

A good example of automatic control is the water level
automatic control system
Water Level Automatic Control System
amplifier Motor
Gearing Valve
Actuator
Water
container
Process
controller
Float
measurement
(Sensor)
Error
Feedback
signal
resistance comparator
Desired
water level
Input
Actual
water level
Output
Water Level Automatic Control System (-contd.)
Water Level Automatic Control System (-contd.)
Open Loop Control Systems (Non-Feedback Systems)
Any physical system which does not automatically correct for
the variations in its output is called an Open Loop Control
System
The output remains constant for a constant input provided the
external conditions remain unaltered
With this approach, the controller never actually knows what the
actuator did and what it was supposed to because there is no
feedback
Closed Loop Control Systems (Feedback Systems)
In a closed-loop control system, the output (controlled variable)
is constantly monitored by a sensor

To obtain more accurate & adaptive control, the controlled output
should be fed-back & compared with the reference input

The fundamental difference between an open-loop & closed-loop
control system is that of feedback action
Fig. General block diagram of a closed-loop control system
Closed Loop Control Systems (Feedback Systems)
Responses of Open Loop & Closed Loop Control Systems
Fig. 1.12 (a) Typical response of the open-loop idle-speed control system
(b) Typical response of the closed-loop idle-speed control system
Feedback & Its Effects
Whenever a closed sequence of cause-and-effect relationship
exists, the feedback is said to exist

The use of feedback is to reduce the error between the
reference input & the system output

The feedback also has effects on system performance
characteristics such as:

(1) Overall gain
(2) Stability
(3) Sensitivity
(4) Disturbance (Noise)

Fig. Feedback System
Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain
The input-output relationship of the feedback system can be
given by

In practical control systems, G & H are functions of frequency,
so the magnitude of 1+GH may be greater than unity in one
frequency range but less than unity in another

Therefore, feedback could increase the system gain in one
frequency range but decrease it in another

GH
G
r
y
M
+
= =
1
Fig. Feedback System
Effect of Feedback on Stability
A system is said to unstable if its output is out of control

The input-output relation of the overall system becomes
GF GH
G
r
y
+ +
=
1
By proper selection
of the outer-loop
feedback gain (F),
the overall system
can be made stable
Sensitivity considerations are important in the design of
control system
All physical elements have properties that change with
environment & age
A good control system should be very insensitive to the
parameter variations but sensitive to input commands
Consider the sensitivity of the overall gain (M) of the simple
feedback system to the variation in G is defined as




Similarly,

Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity
GH G
M
M
G
G
G
M
M
S
M
G
+
=
c
c
= =
c
c
=
1
1
G in Change e Percentang
M in Change e Percentang
GH
GH
H
M
M
H
H
H
M
M
S
M
H
+

=
c
c
=
c
c
=
1
.
The effect of feedback on noise (n) depends greatly on where these noise
signals occur in the control system

In the absence of feedback (H=0), the system output due to n acting alone
is given by


With the presence of feedback, the system output due to n acting alone is
given by

Effect of Feedback on External Disturbance (Noise)
) ...(1
2
n G y =
) 2 ...(
1
2 1
2
n
H G G
G
y
+
=
Noise component in
the feedback system is
reduced by the factor
1+G
1
G
2
H; provided
this factor is greater
than 1 and the system
is kept stable
Types of Feedback Control Systems
Feedback control systems may be classified in a number of
ways, depending on the purpose of the classification:

(1) According to the method of analysis & design:
For example, (a) Linear & Non-linear (b) Time-varying &
Time-invariant

(2) According to the types of signal used in the system:
For example, (a) Continuous Data & Discrete Data (b)
Modulated & Unmodulated

(3) According to the main purpose of the system:
For example, A Position Control & A Velocity Control

(4) According to the number of control variables in the system:
For example, Single-variable & Multi-variable
Linear vs Non-linear Control Systems
Strictly speaking, linear systems dont exist in practice, since all
physical systems are non-linear to some extent
Linear feedback control systems are idealized models fabricated by
the analyst purely for the simplicity of analysis & design
When the magnitude of signals in a control systems are limited to
ranges in which system components exhibit linear characteristics, the
system is essentially linear
But when the magnitudes of signals are extended beyond the range
of the linear operation, the system should no longer be considered
linear
Quite often, non-linear characteristics are intentionally introduced in a
control system to improve its performance or provide more effective
control
It is practical first to design the controller based on the linear-system
model neglecting the non-linear characteristics of the system; the
designed controller is then applied to the non-linear system model
for evaluation or redesign by computer simulation
Time-invariant vs Time-varying Control Systems
When the parameters of a control system are stationary w.r.t.
time during the operation of the system, the system is called a
time-invariant system

But in practice, most physical systems contain elements that
drift or vary with time (e.g. the winding resistance of a motor)
and hence called time-varying systems
Continuous Data vs Discrete Data Control Systems
A continuous data control system is one in which the signals
at various parts of the system are continuous function of time
variable (t)
There are some continuous data control systems called ac/dc
control systems
An AC control system means that the signals in the system
are modulated by some form of modulation scheme
A DC control system simply implies that the signals are
unmodulated
A practical control system incorporates a mixture of ac & dc
components (using modulators & demodulators to match the
signals at various points in the system)
Discrete-Data Control Systems differ from the continuous-data
control systems in that the signals at one or more points of the
system are either in the form of a pulse train or a digital code
The term discrete-data control system is often used to describe both
sampled-data & digital control systems
Sampled-Data control systems refer to more general class of
discrete-data systems in which the signals are in the form of pulse
data

Continuous Data vs Discrete Data Control Systems
(-contd.)
A digital control system refers to the use of digital computer
or controller in the system, so that the signals are digitally
coded (such as binary code)
Strictly, a sampled-data system can also be classified as ac
control system because the signal of the system is pulse
modulated
Advantages of Sampling:
(1) The expensive equipment used in the system may be time-
shared
(2) The pulsed-data are usually less susceptible to noise

Note:
Since digital computers provide many advantages in size &
flexibility, the digital control has become increasingly popular
in recent years
Continuous Data vs Discrete Data Control Systems
(-contd.)
Continuous Data vs Discrete Data Control Systems
(-contd.)
Fig. (1.2) shows the basic elements of a digital autopilot for a
guided missile control system
Single-variable vs Multivariable Control Systems
Single-variable control systems have single input variable for
controlling the single output variable of the system
In many practical applications, more than one variable of interest
are encountered; such systems are referred to as Multivariable
Control Systems
For example, in a chemical plant, a number of variables like
temperature, pressure, & fluid flow etc. are required to be
controlled
Direct Differential Equations of Physical Systems
The differential equations of physical systems can be
obtained by using physical laws of the process
Depending upon the system (Mechanical/Electrical),
various well known physical laws like Newtons laws,
Kirchhoffs laws etc. will be used to build mathematical
models

(A) Mechanical Systems:
In the analysis of the mechanical systems, it is convenient to
make the use of three idealized elements: the mass, the
spring, & the damper
There is frictional force that exists in physical systems
whenever mechanical surfaces are operated in sliding
contact:
Coulomb Friction Force, Viscous Friction Force, &
Stiction
Coulomb Friction Force: The force of friction between dry
surfaces which is substantially constant

Viscous Friction Force: The force of friction between moving
surfaces separated by viscous fluid or the force between a solid
body and a fluid medium. This force is approximately linearly
proportional to velocity over a certain limited velocity range

Stiction: The force required to initiate motion between two
contacting surfaces (which is obviously more than the force
required to maintain them in relative motion)
Mechanical Systems (-contd.)
Fig. (2.1) Ideal elements for mechanical systems
Mechanical Systems (-contd.)
Note:
The friction force acts in direction opposite to that of velocity
However, it should be realized that the friction is not always
undesirable in physical systems
Sometimes, it may even be necessary to introduce friction
intentionally to improve the dynamic response of the system

Example-1: Mechanical System
Let us consider a mechanical
system shown in fig. (2.3a). It is
simply a mass M attached to a
spring (stiffness K) and a
dashpot (viscous friction
coefficient f) on which the force
F operates. Displacement x is
positive in the direction shown.
The zero position is taken to be
the point where the spring &
mass are in static equilibrium.
Applying Newtons law of
motion to free body diagram,
the force equation can be
written as:
2
2
dt
x d
M Kx
dt
dx
f F =
Kx
dt
dx
f
dt
x d
M F or + + =
2
2
In its simplest form, an
accelerometer consists of
a spring-mass-dashpot
system shown in fig.
(2.4). The frame of the
accelerometer is
attached to the moving
vehicle.
The force equation for
the system becomes
Example-2: Mechanical Accelerometer
0
) (
2
2
= + +

Ky
dt
dy
f
dt
x y d
M
a M
dt
x d
M Ky
dt
dy
f
dt
y d
M or = = + +
2
2
2
2
on accelerati input the is a where
Note:
If constant acceleration is applied to the accelerometer, the
output displacement y becomes constant under steady state
condition as the derivatives of y become zero, i.e.,
Example-2: Mechanical Accelerometer (-contd.)
y
M
K
a or
Ky a M
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
The steady state displacement y is thus a measure of the
constant input acceleration
Mechanical systems involving fixed-axis rotation occur in the study
of machinery of many types. In these systems, the variable of
interest are torque & angular velocity (or displacement).

Let us consider the rotational mechanical system shown in fig.
(2.5a) which consists of a rotatable disc of the moment of inertia J
and a shaft of stiffness K. The disc rotates in a viscous medium
with viscous friction coefficient f. If torque T tends to rotate the disc
the angular displacement , then
Example-3: Fixed-axis Rotation
u
u u
u
u
u
K
dt
d
f
dt
d
J T or
dt
d
J K
dt
d
f T
+ + =
=
2
2
2
2
(B) Electrical Systems
The R, L, & C are the three basic elements of electrical
circuits. These circuits are analyzed by the application of
Kirchhoffs voltage & current laws.
Let us analyze the L-R-C series circuit shown in fig. (2.7) by
using the Kirchhoffs voltage law
e idt
C
Ri
dt
di
L
t
= + +
}

1
0
1
& e idt
C
t
=
}

In terms of electric charge ,
the above equation becomes
}

=
t
idt q
e q
C dt
dq
R
dt
q d
L = + +
1
2
2
Similarly, using Kirchhoffs
current law, we get the following
equation for L-R-C parallel
circuit shown in fig. (2.8)




In terms of magnetic flux,
the above equation may be
written as
(B) Electrical Systems (-contd.)
i
dt
de
C
R
e
edt
L
t
= + +
}

1
i
L dt
d
R dt
d
C = + + |
| | 1 1
2
2
Analogous Systems
Mech. Translational
Systems
Mech. Rotational
Systems
Electrical Systems
(LRC Series)
Electrical Systems
(LRC Parallel)
Force (F) Torque (T) Voltage (e) Current (i)
Mass (M) Moment of Inertia (J) Inductance (L) Capacitance (C)
Viscous Friction
Coefficient (f)
Viscous Friction
Coefficient (f)
Resistance (R) Reciprocal of
Resistance (1/R)
Spring Stiffness (K) Torsional Spring
Stiffness (K)
Reciprocal of
Capacitance (1/C)
Reciprocal of
Inductance (1/L)
Displacement (x) Displacement () Charge (q) Magnetic Flux ()
Velocity Angular Velocity Current (i) Voltage (e)
( ) x

( ) u

Comparing the equations for mechanical translational system, mechanical

rotational system, electrical system (LRC series), & electrical system (LRC
parallel), it is observed that they are of identical form
Such systems whose differential equations are of identical form are called
analogous systems
Example-4
The following figure shows a passive electrical network.
Determine the differential equation relating V
1
(t) & V
2
(t).
Transfer Functions
The transfer function of an LTI system is
defined to be the ratio of the Laplace
transform of the output variable to
Laplace transform of the input variable
under the assumption that all initial
conditions are zero
Consider the mass-spring-dashpot
system:


Taking the LT of the above equation, we
get


Thus the transfer function,


F Kx
dt
dx
f
dt
x d
M = + +
2
2
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2
s F s X K s X s f s X s M = + +
K s f s M s F
s X
s G
+ +
= =
2
1
) (
) (
) (
F(s)
X(s)
K s f s M + +
2
1
Similarly, the transfer function of the
LRC series electrical system can be
obtained, i.e.,







Thus,




Note: The highest power of the
complex variable s in the denominator
of the transfer function determines the
order of the system
Transfer Functions (-contd.)
) (
) ( 1
&
) (
) ( 1
) ( ) (
0
s E
C
s I
s
s E
C
s I
s
s I R s I L s
=
= + +
) (
1
1
) (
) (
2
0
s G
s RC s LC s E
s E
=
+ +
=
E(s)
E
0
(s)
1
1
2
+ + s RC s LC
The above two equations show that the transfer function is an
expression in s-domain, relating the output and input of the LTI
system in terms of the system parameters and is independent of
input
The transfer function describes the input-output behavior of the
system & does not give any information relating the internal
structure of the system

A physical system represented by a block diagram shows the
cause & effect relationship between input & output of the system
Functional operation of a system can be more easily visualized
by the examination of a block diagram rather than by examination
of the equations describing the physical system
Therefore, when working with an LTI system, we can think of a
system or its subsystems simply as interconnected blocks with
each block described by a transfer function
Transfer Functions (-contd.)
Block Diagram Algebra
The input-output behavior of a linear
system or element of a linear system is
given by its transfer function:


where, R(s) is LT of input variable; and
C(s) is LT of the output variable
The flow of information is unidirectional
from input to output with output being
equal to the input multiplied by the
transfer function of the block [as shown
in fig.(2.19a)]
Summing & differencing of signals is
indicated by symbols [fig. (2.19b)] while
the take-off point is represented by
fig. (2.19c)
) (
) (
) (
s R
s C
s G =
Block Diagram of a Closed-loop System
G(s) is forward path transfer function
H(s) is transfer function of the
feedback elements

Closed-loop transfer function:



From the fig. 2.20a, we have




Putting the value of E(s) from eq.(2)
into eq.(1), we get

Therefore,
Fig. 2.20 (a) Block diagram of a
closed-loop system (b) Reduction
of block diagram
) (
) (
) (
s R
s C
s T =
) 2 ...( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) 1 ...( ) ( ) ( ) (
s C s H s R s B s R s E
s E s G s C
= =
=
)] ( ) ( ) ( [ ) ( ) ( s C s H s R s G s C =
) ( ) ( 1
) (
) (
) (
) (
s H s G
s G
s R
s C
s T
+
= =
Multiple-input-Multiple-output Systems
When multiple inputs are
present in a linear system, each
input can be treated
independent of each other
Complete output can be
obtained by superposition
Consider a 2-input linear system
of fig. (2.21a):
( ) 1 ... ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( 1
) ( ) (
) (
2 1
2 1
s R
s H s G s G
s G s G
s C
R
+
=
( ) 2 ... ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( 1
) (
) (
2 1
2
s U
s H s G s G
s G
s C
U
+
=
Therefore,
)] ( ) ( ) ( [
) ( ) ( ) ( 1
) (
) ( ) ( ) (
1
2 1
2
s U s R s G
s H s G s G
s G
s C s C s C
U R
+
+
= + =
In case of multiple-input-
multiple-output system (n-
inputs & m-outputs), the i
th
output C
i
(s) is given by the
superposition principle:





where R
j
(s) is the j
th
input and
G
ij
(s) is the transfer function
between the i
th
output & j
th

input with all other inputs
reduced to 0
Multiple-input-Multiple-output Systems (-contd.)

=
= =
n
j
j ij i
m i s R s G s C
1
,..., 3 , 2 , 1 ; ) ( ) ( ) (
Block Diagram
Reduction:
A complex block
diagram configuration
can be simplified by
certain
rearrangements of
the block diagram
using rules of the
block diagram
algebra
All these rules are
derived by simple
algebraic
manipulations of the
equations
representing the
blocks
Examples
Q. 2.9 Using block diagram reduction technique, find the closed
loop transfer functions of the systems shown in figs. 2.9 (a)&(b).
Examples (-contd.)
Q. 2.10 For the system represented by the block diagram shown
in fig. 2.10, evaluate the closed loop transfer functions, when
the input R is (i) at station-I, (ii) at station-II.
Examples (-contd.)
Q. 2.11 From the block diagram shown in fig 2.11, determine
C
1
/R
1
& C
2
/R
1
(assuming R
2
=0).
Signal Flow Graphs
Block diagrams are very useful for representing the control
systems
But for the complicated systems, the block diagram reduction
technique is very tedious & time consuming
An alternative approach is that of the signal flow graphs
(developed by S. J. Mason) which doesnt require any reduction
process because of availability of a flow graph gain formula
which relates the input & output system variables
A signal flow graph (SFG) is a graphical representation of the
relationships between the variables of a set of linear algebraic
equations
It consists of a network in which nodes representing each of the
system variables are connected by directed branches
Example:
The SFG of a closed linear system can be shown in fig.
2.25(b) & (c), whose formulation can be explained through
various signal flow terms:
Node
Branch
Input Node (or Source)
Output Node (or Sink)
Path
Forward Path
Loop
Non-touching Loops
Forward Path Gain
Loop Gain
Signal Flow Graphs
(a)
(c) (b)
Construction of SFG
The SFG of a system is
constructed from its describing
equations
Let us consider a system
described by the following set of
equations:





where, x
1
is the input variable, x
5

is output variable, and a
ij
is the
gain of the branch directed from
node x
i
to node x
j

The SFG for this system is constructed by first locating the
nodes (fig. 2.26a)
The first equation states that x
2
is equal to the sum of 4-
signals and its SFG is shown in fig. 2.26b
Similarly, the SFGs for the remaining three equations are
constructed giving the complete SFG of fig. 2.26f
The overall gain from input to output may be obtained by
Masons Gain formula
Construction of SFG (-contd.)
Masons Gain Formula
Masons gain formula for the determination of the overall gain (T)
of the system given by


where, P
k
= Path gain of the k
th
forward path;
= Determinant of the graph = 1 (Sum of loop gains of all
individual loops) + (Sum of gain products of all possible
combinations of two non-touching loops) (Sum of gain products of
all possible combinations of three non-touching loops) + , i.e.,


where, P
mr
= Gain product of the m
th
possible combination of r non-
touching loops;

k
= the value of for that part of the graph not touching the k
th

forward path
) 1 ...( P

1
T
k k
k
=
) 2 ...( ... 1
3 2 1
+ E E + E = A
m
m
m
m
m
m
P P P
Example
Find the overall gain of the SFG of fig.
(2.26f) using Masons formula.

The following conclusions are drawn
by inspection of this SFG
1. There are 2 forward paths with gains
P
1
= a
12
a
23
a
34
a
45
; P
2
= a
12
a
23
a
35

2. There are 5 individual loops with loops
gains
P
11
= a
23
a
32
; P
21
= a
23
a
34
a
42
; P
31
= a
44
;
P
41
= a
23
a
34
a
45
a
52
; & P
51
= a
23
a
35
a
52

3. There are 2 possible combinations of
non-touching loops with loop gain
products
P
12
= a
23
a
32
a
44
; & P
22
= a
23
a
35
a
52
a
44
Fig. (2.26) Construction of signal
flow graph for equations (2.63)
4. There are no combinations of 3 non-touching loops, 4 non-
touching loops, , etc. Therefore, P
m3
= P
m4
= = 0
Hence, = 1 - (a
23
a
32
+ a
23
a
34
a
42
+ a
44
+ a
23
a
34
a
45
a
52
+ a
23
a
35
a
52
) +
(a
23
a
32
a
44
+ a
23
a
35
a
52
a
44
)

5. The first forward path is in touch with all the loops, therefore
1
=1.
Second forward path is not in touch with one loop, therefore
2

= 1 - a
44

Hence, overall gain,
Example (-contd.)
) a a a a a a (a ) a a a a a a a a a a a a (a - 1
) a 1 ( a a a a a a a
44 52 35 23 44 32 23 52 35 23 52 45 34 23 44 42 34 23 32 23
44 35 23 12 45 34 23 12
2 2 1 1
1
5
+ + + + + +
+
=
A
A + A
= =
P P
x
x
T
Exercises
Q. 2.13 Draw a signal flow graph & evaluate the closed-loop
transfer function of a system shown in fig. (P-2.13).
Q. 2.14 Obtain the overall transfer function C/R from the signal
flow graph shown in fig. (P-2.14).
Exercises (-contd.)
Q. 2.15 Fig. (P-2.15) gives the signal flow graph of a system with
two inputs & two outputs. Find expressions for the outputs C
1
&
C
2
. Also determine the condition that makes C
1
independent of
R
2
& C
2
independent of R
1
.
Exercises (-contd.)