One-Dimensional, Steady-State

Conduction with
Thermal Energy Generation
Chapter Three
Section 3.5, Appendix C
Lecture 5
Alternative Conduction Analysis

Standard approach is useful for constant k and A.
Alternative method may be needed for changing k(T) or
A(x) as long as q
x
is constant.
Refer to Figure 3.6, A(x) is a function of x, k(T) changes
with T
q
x
= -k(T)*A(x)*(dT/dx)=constant
Alternative Conduction Analysis

Figure 3.6
Alternative Conduction Analysis

q
x
= -k(T)*A(x)*(dT/dx)=constant



The last eqn. applies to uniform A and constant k.
1-D, Steady-state, no heat generation

T k
A
x q
dT T k
x A
dx
q
x
T
T
x
x
x
A =
A
=
} }
0 0
) (
) (
Examples 3.5 (pages 133-135)
The diagram shows a conical section fabricated from pyroceram. It is
of a circular cross section with the diameter D = ax, where a = 0.25. The
smaller end at x
1
=50 mm and large end at x
2
=250 mm. The end Ts are
T
1
=400K and T
2
=600K, while the lateral surface is well insulated.
1.Derive an expression for the T(x) in symbolic form, assume 1-D
condition. Sketch the T distribution.
2.Calculate the heat rate q
x
through the cone.

Examples 3.5
Examples 3.5
Known: Conduction in circular conical section having a diameter
D=ax, where a=0.25.
Find: 1. T(x), 2. Heat transfer rate q
x
Schematic:

T
2
= 600K
x
1
= 0.05 m
x
T
1
= 400K
x
2
= 0.25 m
q
x
Pyroceram
Examples 3.5
Assumptions:
1. Steady-state;
2. 1-D conduction in x direction;
3. No internal heat generation;
4. Constant properties.
Properties:
Table A.2 (page 988), pyroceram (500K): k=3.46 W/mK
Examples 3.5
Analysis:
1-D, steady-state without heat generation

Where A = t D
2
/4=t a
2
x
2
/4, separating variables,


dx
dT
kA q
x
=
kdT
x a
dx q
x
=
2 2
4
t
dT k
x
dx
a
q T
T
x
x
x
} }
=
1 1
2 2
4
t
Examples 3.5
Analysis:
Hence:



Although q
x
is a constant, yet, an unknown. We need
the second b.c. to evaluate q
x
.
)
1 1
(
4
) (
) ( )
1 1
(
4
1
2
1
1
1
2
x x k a
q
T x T
T for solving or
T T k
x x a
q
x
x
=
= +
t
t
Examples 3.5
Analysis:
At x=x
2
, T=T
2
(2
nd
b.c.)



]
) / 1 ( ) / 1 (
) / 1 ) / 1 (
)[ ( ) (
)] / 1 ( ) / 1 [( 4
) (
)
1 1
(
4
2 1
1
2 1 1
2 1
2 1
2
2 1
2
1 2
x x
x x
T T T x T
x x
T T k a
q
or
x x k a
q
T T
x
x

+ =

=
=
t
t
Examples 3.5
Analysis:
Substituting numerical values into the foregoing eqn.



Comments:
1. The heat transfers in the direction of decreasing temp.
W
mK W
q
x
12 . 2
) 25 . 0 / 1 05 . 0 / 1 ( 4
) 600 400 )( / ( 46 . 3 ) 25 . 0 (
2
=

=
t
Examples 3.6 (pages 138-141)

Examples 3.6
Known: Liquid N
2
is stored in a spherical container that is insulated
and exposed to ambient air
Find:
1 The rate of heat transfer to N
2
2 The mass rate of N
2
boil-off
Schematic:

Examples 3.6

Examples 3.6
Assumptions:
1. Steady-state;
2. 1-D conduction through radial direction;
3. Negligible resistance to heat transfer through the container wall
and from the container to N
2
;
4. Constant properties;
5. Negligible radiation exchange between outer surface of insulation
and the surroundings.
Examples 3.6
Properties: From Table A.3 (page 936), evacuated
silica powder (300K): k=0.0017W/mK
Analysis:
The thermal circuit involves a conduction and convection resistance
in series and is of the form:
Examples 3.6
Analysis:
From Eqn. 3.36

From Eqn. 3.9

Heat transfer rate to the liquid N
2
:


)
1 1
(
4
1
2 1
,
r r k
R
cond t
=
t
2
2
,
4
1 1
r h hA
R
conv t
t
= =
conv t cond t t
R R
T T
R
T
q
, ,
1 , 2 ,
+

=
E
A
=

Examples 3.6
Analysis:
Heat transfer rate to the liquid N
2
:


Hence

) 4 / 1 ( )] / 1 ( ) / 1 )[( 4 / 1 (
2
2 2 1
1 , 2 ,
r h r r k
T T
q
t t +

=

) ) 275 . 0 ( 4 / 20 / 1 ( )] 275 . 0 / 1 ( ) 25 . 0 / 1 )[( / 0017 . 0 4 / 1 (
) 77 300 (
2 2
m K m W m m mK W
K
q
t t +

=
Examples 3.6
Analysis: q = 223/(17.02+0.05)=13.06 W
(2). Energy balance for a control surface about N
2
0 =
- -
out in E E
q Ein =
-
fg
out h m E
- -
=
fg
h m q
-
=
s kg x
kg J x
s J
kg J x
W
h
q
m
fg
/ 10 53 . 6
/ 10 2
/ 06 . 13
/ 10 2
06 . 13
5
5 5

-
= = = =
Examples 3.6
Analysis:
The loss per day (liters/day):


day kg day h h s s kg x m / 64 . 5 / 24 * / 3600 * / 10 53 . 6
5
= =

-
day m m kg day kg m V / 007 . 0 ) / 804 /( ) / 64 . 5 ( /
3 3
= = =
- -

Examples 3.6
Comments:
R
t,cond
>>R
t,conv
, to reduce the boil-off, need to look for better or
thicker insulator.
Daily loss is about 10.8% of the total volume in the container.
Doubling thickness of insulator can reduce 45% loss.
If a specific boil-off rate is required, insulator thickness can be
determined to meet the needs.
One-Dimensional, Steady-State
Conduction with
Thermal Energy Generation
Chapter Three
Section 3.5, Appendix C
Implications
Implications of Energy Generation
Involves a local (volumetric) source of thermal energy due to conversion
from another form of energy in a conducting medium.
The source may be uniformly distributed, as in the conversion from
electrical to thermal energy (Ohmic heating):
2
g
e
E
I R
q = =

(3.43)
or it may be non-uniformly distributed, as in the absorption of radiation
passing through a semi-transparent medium.

x
q e
o

Generation affects the temperature distribution in the medium and causes

the heat rate to vary with location, thereby precluding inclusion of
the medium in a thermal circuit.
For a plane wall,
Conduction with Heat Generation
Plane Wall with Thermal Energy Generation






Steady-state, 1-D conduction through x direction
t
T
k
q
z
T
y
T
x
T
c
c
= +
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
-
o
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
0
2
2
= +
-
k
q
dx
T d
The Plane Wall
The Plane Wall
Consider one-dimensional, steady-state conduction
in a plane wall of constant k, uniform generation,
and asymmetric surface conditions:
Heat Equation:
2
2
0 0
d dT d T q
k q
dx dx dx k
| |
+ = + =
|
\ .
(3.44)
Is the heat flux independent of x? q''
General Solution:
( ) ( )
2
1 2
/ 2 T x q k x C x C = + +
What is the form of the temperature distribution for
0? q = > 0? q < 0? q
How does the temperature distribution change with increasing ? q
(3.45)
Plane wall (cont.)
Symmetric Surface Conditions or One Surface Insulated:
What is the temperature gradient
at the centerline or the insulated
surface?
Why does the magnitude of the temperature
gradient increase with increasing x?
Temperature Distribution:
( )
2 2
2
1
2
s
qL x
T x T
k L
| |
= +
|
\ .
(3.47)
Overall energy balance on the wall
out 0 g E E + =
( ) 0
s s s
s
hA T T q A L
q L
T T
h

+ =
= +
(3.51)
How do we determine the heat rate at x = L?
How do we determine ?
s
T
Radial Systems
Radial Systems
Heat Equations:
Cylindrical
1
0
d dT
kr q
r dr dr
| |
+ =
|
\ .
Spherical
2
2
1
0
d dT
kr q
r dr dr
| |
+ =
|
\ .
Cylindrical (Tube) Wall Spherical Wall (Shell)
Solid Cylinder (Circular Rod) Solid Sphere
Radial systems (cont.)
Temperature Distribution
3
2
1
3
dT qr
kr C
dr
= +
2
1
2
6
qr C
T C
k r
= +
0 1
0 0
r
dT
C
dr
=
= = |
( )
2
2
6
o
o s s
qr
T r T C T
k
= = +
( )
2 2
2
1
6
o
s
o
qr r
T r T
k r
| |
= +
|
\ .
Surface Temperature
Overall energy balance:
Or from a surface energy balance:
in out 0 E E =
( )
cond conv o
q r q =
3
o
s
qr
T T
h

= +
Solution for Uniform Generation in a Solid Sphere of Constant k
with Convection Cooling:
A summary of temperature distributions is provided in Appendix C
for plane, cylindrical and spherical walls, as well as for solid
cylinders and spheres. Note how boundary conditions are specified
and how they are used to obtain surface temperatures.
out 0
g
E E + =
3
o
s
qr
T T
h

= +
Problem: Nuclear Fuel Rod
Problem 3.100 Thermal conditions in a gas-cooled nuclear reactor
with a tubular thorium fuel rod and a concentric
graphite sheath: (a) Assessment of thermal integrity
for a generation rate of . (b) Evaluation of
temperature distributions in the thorium and graphite
for generation rates in the range .
8 3
10 W/m q =
8 8
10 5x10 q s s
Assumptions: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction, (3) Constant
properties, (4) Negligible contact resistance, (5) Negligible radiation.
Properties: Table A.1, Thorium: 2000K; Table A.2, Graphite: 2300K.
mp mp
T T ~ ~
Schematic:
Analysis: (a) The outer surface temperature of the fuel, T
2
, may be determined from the rate equation
2
tot
T T
q
R

' =
'
where
( )
3 2
tot
3
1n /
1
0.0185 m K/W
2 2
g
r r
R
k r h t t
' = + =
The heat rate may be determined by applying an energy balance to a control surface about the fuel
element,
Since the interior surface of the element is essentially adiabatic, it follows that
( )
2 2
2 1
17, 907 W/m q q r r t ' = =

Hence,
( )
2 tot
17,907 W/m 0.0185 m K/W 600K 931K T q R T

' ' = + = + =
With zero heat flux at the inner surface of the fuel element, Eq. C.14 yields
2
2 2 2
2 1 1
1 2
2
2 1
1 1n 931K 25K 18K 938K <
4 2
t t
r
qr r qr
T T
k r k r
| |
| |
|
= + = + =
|
|
\ .
\ .

out g
E E =
or, per unit length,
out g E E ' ' =

Problem: Nuclear fuel rod (cont.)
Since T
1
and T
2
are well below the melting points of thorium and graphite, the prescribed
operating condition is acceptable.
(b) The solution for the temperature distribution in a cylindrical wall with generation is
( )
2 2
2
2
2
2
1
4
t
t
qr r
T r T
k r
| |
= +
|
\ .
( )
( )
( )
2
2 1
2 2
1n /
2 1
2 1
2 1n /
2
1
4
r r
r r
t
qr r
T T
k
r
(
| |
(
+
|
|
(
\ .

(C.2)
Boundary conditions at r
1
and r
2
are used to determine T
1
and T
2
.
( )
( )
2 2
2 1
2 1 2
2
1
1 1
1 2 1
1
4
: 0
2 1n /
t
qr r
k T T
k r
qr
r r q
r r r
(
| |
( +
|
(
\ .

'' = = =
(C.14)
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2 1
2 1 2
2
2
2 2 2
2 2 1
1
4
:
2 1n /
t
qr r
k T T
k r
qr
r r U T T
r r r

(
| |
(
+
|
(
\ .

= =
(C.17)
( ) ( )
1 1
2 2 tot 2 tot
2 U A R r R t

' ' ' = =
(3.37)
Problem: Nuclear fuel rod (cont.)
The following results are obtained for temperature distributions in the graphite.
Operation at is clearly unacceptable since the melting point of
thorium would be exceeded. To prevent softening of the material, which would occur
below the melting point, the reactor should not be operated much above .
The small radial temperature gradients are attributable to the large value of .
8 3
5 10 W/m q =
t
k
8 3
3 10 W/m q =
0.008 0.009 0.01 0.011
Radi al l ocation i n fuel , r(m)
500
900
1300
1700
2100
2500
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

T
(
K
)
qdot = 5E8
qdot = 3E8
qdot = 1E8

Problem: Nuclear fuel rod (cont.)
2000K
mp
T =
the temperature distribution in the graphite is
( )
( )
2 3
3
2 3 3
1n
1n /
g
T T r
T r T
r r r
| |
= +
|
\ .
(3.31)
0.011 0.012 0.013 0.014
Radi al l ocation i n graphi te, r(m)
500
900
1300
1700
2100
2500
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

T
(
K
)
qdot = 5E8
qdot = 3E8
qdot = 1E8

Using the value of T
2
from the foregoing solution and computing T
3
from the surface condition,
( )
( )
2 3
3 2
2
1n /
g
k T T
q
r r
t
' =
Problem: Nuclear fuel rod (cont.)
2300K
mp
T =
(ii) Referring
to the schematic, where might radiation effects be significant?
What would be the influence of such
effect on temperatures in the fuel element and the maximum allowable value of ?

q
Comments: (i) What effect would a contact resistance at the thorium/graphite interface have on
temperatures in the fuel element and on the maximum allowable value of ?
q
Operation at is problematic for the graphite. Larger temperature gradients
are due to the small value of .
8 3
5 10 W/m q =
g
k
Problem: Nuclear fuel rod (cont.)