FEM 4100

Topic 2
BRAIN ANATOMY

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Two parts of a nervous system
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Brain (in the skull) Spinal Cord (in the spine)

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Located outside of the skull and spine Connects the central nervous system to all other parts of the body Serves to brin information into the CNS and carry si nals out of the CNS
2

Central Nervous System

Spinal cord !n e"tension of the brain# reachin from the base of the brain throu h the neck and spinal column# that transmits messa es between the brain and the peripheral nervous system Protected by bone and spinal fluid Brain structures $indbrain (brainstem) %idbrain &orebrain

Central Nervous System

Brainstem The structure that be ins at the point where the spinal cord enlar es as it enters the brain %edulla
The part of the brainstem that controls heartbeat# blood pressure# breathin # cou hin # and swallowin

Central Nervous System

Brainstem (continued) 'eticular formation
! structure in the brainstem that plays a crucial role in arousal and attention and that screens sensory messa es enterin the brain Pons ! structure in the brainstem that plays a role in body movement and even e"erts an influence on sleep and dreamin

Central Nervous System

Cerebellum The brain structure that e"ecutes smooth# skilled body movements and re ulates muscle tone and posture

Central Nervous System

%idbrain The structures of this brain re ion act primarily as relay stations throu h which the basic physiolo ical functions of the hindbrain are linked to the co nitive functions of the forebrain Substantia ni ra
The midbrain structure that controls unconscious motor movements

Central Nervous System

Thalamus The structure# located above the brainstem# that acts as a relay station for information flowin into or out of the hi her brain centers 'e ulates sleep cycles $ypothalamus ! small but influential brain structure that controls the pituitary land and re ulates hun er# thirst# se"ual behavior# body temperature# and a wide variety of emotional behaviors

Central Nervous System

Limbic system ! roup of structures in the brain# includin the amy dala and hippocampus# that are collectively involved in emotion# memory# and motivation !my dala
! structure in the limbic system that plays an important role in emotion# particularly in response to aversive stimuli

$ippocampus
! structure in the limbic system that plays a central role in the formation of lon (term memories

Central Nervous System

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

N e r v o ! ! " ! te # C e n tra l n e rv o ! ! " ! te # S p in a l c o rd B r a in & e r ip % e r a l n e rv o ! ! " ! te # S $ e le ta l ! " ! te # ' to n o # ic n e rv o ! ! " ! te # & a r a ! " # p a t % e t ic n e rv o ! ! " ! te #
11

S " # p a t % e t ic n e rv o ! ! " ! te #

B'S(C FE'TURES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Neuraxis
!n ima inary line drawn throu h the center of the len th of the central nervous system# from the bottom of the spinal cord to the front of the forebrain) Anterior & posterior
Anterior With respect to the central nervous system, locate near or to!ar the hea " #osterior With respect to the central nervous system, locate near or to!ar the tail"

12

1)

 Rostral & cau al Rostral

$To!ar the %ea&'( !ith respect to the central nervous system, in a irection alon) the neuraxis to!ar the *ront o* the *ace"

+au al
$To!ar the tail'( !ith respect to the central nervous system, in a irection alon) the neuraxis a!ay *rom the *ront o* the *ace"

,orsal & ventral ,orsal

$To!ar the %ac&'( !ith respect to the central nervous system, in a irection perpen icular to the neuraxis to!ar the top o* the hea or the %ac&"

-entral
$To!ar the %elly'( !ith respect to the central nervous system, in a irection perpen icular to the neuraxis to!ar the %ottom o* the s&ull or the *ront sur*ace o* the %o y"

14

 .ateral or me ial
Lateral
Toward the side of the body# away from the middle)

%edial
Toward the middle of the body# away from the side)

Ipsilateral or Contralateral
Ipsilateral
Located on the same side of the body)

Contralateral
Located on opposites side of the body)
1*

 Cross section or &rontal section

! transverse cut like a salami) *ith respect to the central nervous system# a slice taken at ri ht an les to the neura"is) ! slice throu h the brain parallel to the forehead)

$ori+ontal section
! slice throu h the brain parallel to the round)

Sa ittal section
! slice throu h the brain parallel to the neura"is and perpendicular to the round)

%idsa ittal
The plane throu h the neura"is perpendicular to the round, divides the brain into two symmetrical halves
1+

1,

1-

MEN(N.ES/ VENTR(C0ES 1 CSF

+N/ 0 encase in %one an covere %y three menin)es
,ura mater 1$har mother'2
The tou)h outermost mem%rane o* the menin)es( *lexi%le, unstretcha%le"

Arachnoi mem%rane 3
4rom the 5ree& arachne, meanin) $spi er'" The weblike mi le layer o* the menin)es, locate %et!een the ura mater an the inner pia mater"

#ia mater 1$pious mother'2

The layer o* the menin)es a 6acent to the sur*ace o* the %rain( thin an elicate" A heres to +N/ sur*ace
12

MEN(N.ES/ 1 CSF %enin es#VENTR(C0ES -entricles# and

CS& Subarachnoid space

The fluid(filled space that cushions the brain, located between the arachnoid membrane and the pia mater)

Cerebrospinal fluid (CS&)

! clear fluid# similar to blood plasma# that fills the ventricular system of the brain and the subarachnoid space surroundin the brain and spinal cord) &luid serves as cushion

20

21

The Five Major Divisions of the Brain

22

2)

The Five Major Divisions of the Brain

Telencephalon
Cerebral corte" Limbic system Basal an lia

.iencephalon
Thalamus / sensory relay nuclei $ypothalamus
'e ulation of motivated behaviors Controls hormone release by the pituitary
24

 %esencephalon
Tectum (dorsal surface)
0nferior colliculi / audition Superior colliculi ( vision

Te mentum (ventral) / 1 2colorful3 structures

Peria4ueductal ray / anal esia Substantia ni ra / sensorimotor 'ed nucleus/ sensorimotor

2*

 %yelencephalon 5 medulla
Composed lar ely of tracts 6ri in of the reticular formation

%etencephalon
%any tracts Pons / ventral surface Cerebellum ( coordination

2+

THE CENTR'0 NERVOUS SYSTEM

2,

THE CENTR'0 NERVOUS SYSTEM

2-

THE CENTR'0 NERVOUS SYSTEM

The *ore%rain0telencephalon
+ere%rum
The lar)est structure o* the human %rain, consistin) o* the t!o cere%ral hemispheres connecte %y the corpus callosum an covere %y the cere%ral cortex The most rostral o* the three ma6or ivisions o* the %rain( inclu es the telencephalon an iencephalon" +onvolutions serve to increase sur*ace area" .on)itu inal *issure 3 a )roove that separates ri)ht an le*t hemispheres +orpus callosum 3 lar)est hemisphere0connectin) tract The thic& %an o* nerve *i%ers that connects the t!o cere%ral hemispheres an ma&es possi%le the trans*er o* in*ormation an the synchroni7ation o* activity %et!een them
22

 The *ore%rain0telencephalon +ere%rum

+ere%ral hemispheres
The ri)ht an le*t halves o* the cere%rum, covere %y the cere%ral cortex an connecte %y the corpus callosum One o* the t!o ma6or portions o* the *ore%rain, covere %y the cere%ral cortex"

+ere%ral cortex
The )ray, convolute coverin) o* the cere%ral hemispheres that is responsi%le *or hi)her mental processes inclu in) lan)ua)e, memory, an thin&in) Re*erre to as gray matter An reason an others 7 In icate that the amount o* )ray matter is positively correlate !ith human intelli)ence +onvolutions 7 The numerous *ol s or !rin&les in the cortex
)0

 The *ore%rain0telencephalon Cerebral corte"

Three types of areas of the cerebral corte"
Sensory input areas8 where vision# hearin # touch# pressure# and temperature re ister %otor areas8 control voluntary movement !ssociation areas8 house memories and are involved in thou ht# perception# and lan ua e

)1

 The *ore%rain0telencephalon
/u%cortical re)ion
The re)ion locate !ithin the %rain, %eneath the cortical sur*ace" +ontains the lim%ic system an the %asal )an)lia"

/ulcus
A )roove in the sur*ace o* the cere%ral hemisphere, smaller than a *issure"

4issure
A ma6or )roove in the sur*ace o* the %rain, lar)er than a sulcus"

5yrus
A convolution o* the cortex o* the cere%ral hemispheres, separate %y sulci or *issures"
)2

))

 The *ore%rain0telencephalon
#rimary visual cortex
The re)ion o* the posterior occipital lo%e !hose primary input is *rom the visual system"

+alcarine *issure
A *issure locate in the occipital lo%e on the me ial sur*ace o* the %rain( most o* the primary visual cortex is locate alon) its upper an lo!er %an&s"

#rimary au itory cortex

The re)ion o* the superior temporal lo%e !hose primary input is *rom the au itory system"

.ateral *issure
The *issure that separates the temporal lo%e *rom the overlyin) *rontal an parietal lo%es"
)4

 The *ore%rain0telencephalon
#rimary somatosensory cortex
The re)ion o* the anterior parietal lo%e !hose primary input is *rom the somatosensory system"

+entral sulcus
The sulcus that separates the *rontal lo%e *rom the parietal lo%e"

#rimary motor cortex

The re)ion o* the posterior *rontal lo%e that contains neurons that control movements o* s&eletal muscle" The connections o* this re)ion are contralateral" The le*t primary motor cortex controls the ri)ht si e o* the %o y an vice versa"

)*

)+

 The *ore%rain0 telencephalon

The Brain Lobes
&rontal lobe Parietal lobe Temporal lobe 6ccipital lobe

),

T%e Frontal 0o3e!

The anterior portion of the cerebral corte"# rostral to the parietal lobe and dorsal to the temporal lobe) This includes everythin in front of the central sulcus (front of the brain) &unctions include motor corte" 8 control voluntary
body movements# Broca3s area 8 speech production the frontal association areas8

memory search# reasonin

thinkin # motivation# plannin for the future# impulse control# and emotional responses

Phineas 9a e
)-

 %otor corte"
The strip of tissue at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary body movement .iscovered by &ritsch and $it+i *ilder Penfield
!pplied electrical stimulation to the motor corte" of conscious human patients under oin neurosur ery %apped the primary motor corte" in humans

Plasticity is maintained throu hout life

The capacity of the brain to adapt to chan es such as brain dama e
)2

T%e &arietal 0o3e!

The re ion of the cerebral corte" caudal to the frontal lobe and dorsal to the temporal lobe (Top rear of the brain) The lobes that contain the somatosensory corte" and other areas that are responsible for
%o y a!areness, attention, motor control an spatial orientation

Somatosensory corte"
The strip o* tissue at the *ront o* the parietal lo%e !here touch, pressure, temperature, an pain re)ister in the cere%ral cortex
40

T%e Te#poral 0o3e!

The region of the cerebral cortex rostral to the occi ital lobe an! ventral to the arietal an! frontal lobes "in front of the ears# The lobes that contain the rimary au!itory cortex$ %ernic&e's area "hearing#$ an! association areas for inter reting au!itory information$ vision$ memory (rimary au!itory cortex)
T%e part o4 t%e te#poral lo3e! 5%ere %earin6 re6i!ter! in t%e cere3ral corte7

41

T%e Occipital 0o3e!

The re)ion o* the cere%ral cortex cau al to the parietal an temporal lo%es" This is locate posterior to the central sulcus 1At the %ac& o* the hea 2 The lo%es that contain the primary visual cortex an association areas involve in the interpretation o* visual in*ormation #rimary visual cortex
The area at the rear o* the occipital lo%es !here vision re)isters in the cere%ral cortex 8ach eye is connecte to the primary visual cortex in %oth ri)ht an le*t occipital lo%es

42

8%at Beca#e o4 'l3ert Ein!tein9! Brain:

4)

(nve!ti6ation 4or St dent Centered learnin6

8%at Beca#e o4 'l3ert Ein!tein9! Brain:

6n !pril :;# :<==# the reat mathematician and physicist !lbert >instein died) $e was ?@ years old) >instein had re4uested that his body be cremated but that his brain be saved and studied for research) Scientists counted the number of neurons (nerve cells) and lial cells in four areas of >instein3s brain8 area < of the cerebral corte" on the ri ht and left hemisphere and area 1< of the cerebral corte" on the ri ht and left hemisphere) The ratios of neurons to lial cells in >instein3s brain were compared to those from the brains of :: men who died at the avera e a e of @A)
44

Clues
Area 9 is locate in the *rontal lo%e 1pre*rontal cortex2 an is thou)ht to %e important *or plannin) %ehavior, attention an memory" Area :9 is locate in the parietal lo%e an is part o* the ;association cortex"; Area :9 is thou)ht to %e involve !ith lan)ua)e an several other complex *unctions"

4*

 The *ore%rain0telencephalon
Sensory association corte"
Those re ions of the cerebral corte" that receive information from re ions of the primary sensory corte") Perception takes place here and memories are stored here)

%otor association corte" (premotor corte")

The re ion of the frontal lobe rostral to the primary corte", also known as the premotor corte") Controls overall motor behavior)
4+

 The *ore%rain0telencephalon
Prefrontal corte"
The re ion of the frontal lobe rostral to the motor association corte") This re ion is involved in formulatin plans and strate ies)

Corpus callosum
! lar e bundle of a"ons that interconnects correspondin re ions of the association corte" on each side of the brain)
4,

 The *ore%rain0telencephalon
Neocorte"
The phylo enetically newest corte"# includin the primary sensory corte"# primary motor corte"# and association corte")

Limbic corte"
Phylo enetically old corte"# located at the medial ed e of the cerebral hemispheres, part of the limbic system)

Cin ulate yrus

! strip of limbic corte" lyin alon the lateral walls of the roove separatin the cerebral hemispheres# Bust above the corpus callosum)
4-

42

 The *ore%rain0telencephalon Subcortical structures ( Limbic system

'e ulation of motivated behaviors ! roup of brain re ions includin the anterior thalamic nuclei# amy dala# hippocampus# limbic corte"# forni"# cin ulate# septum# mammillary bodies and parts of the hypothalamus# as well as their interconnectin fiber bundles) These structures in the brain are collectively involved in emotion# memory# and motivation

$ippocampus
! forebrain structure in the limbic system (in the temporal lobe) that plays a central role in the formation of lon (term memories 0ncludes the hippocampus proper# dentate yrus# and subiculum)
*0

*1

 .im%ic system
&orni"
! fiber bundle that connects the hippocampus with
other parts of the brain# includin the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus)

%ammillary bodies
! protrusion of the bottom of the brain at the posterior end of the hypothalamus# containin some hypothalamic nuclei) Serve as relay stations in refle"es related to the sense of smell)

*2

*)

 .im%ic system
Basal an lia motor system
Part of the telencephalon# includin the caudate nucleus# the lobus pallidus# and the putamen) Parkinson3s disease is caused by de eneration of the caudate nucleus and putamen) Parkinson3s disease includes weakness# tremors# ri idity of the limbs# poor balance and difficulty initiatin movements) !my dala# striatum (caudate nucleus C putamen)# lobus pallidus !my dala
7 ! structure in the limbic system (in the interior of the rostral temporal lobe)# containin a set of nuclei) 7 plays an important role in emotion# particularly in response to aversive stimuli *4

**

 The *ore%rain0 iencephalon

,iencephalon
/ituate %et!een the telencephalon an the mesencephalon" A re)ion o* the *ore%rain surroun in) the thir ventricle" The most important structures inclu e the thalamus an the hypothalamus"

Thalamus 15ree& thalamos, $inner cham%er'2

The lar)est portion o* the iencephalon, locate a%ove the hypothalamus( contains nuclei that pro6ect in*ormation to speci*ic re)ions o* the cere%ral cortex an receive in*ormation *rom it"

#ro6ection *i%er
An axon o* a neuron in one re)ion o* the %rain !hose terminals *orm synapses !ith neurons in another re)ion"
*+

*,

 The *ore%rain0 iencephalon

Thalamus The structure, locate a%ove the %rainstem, that acts as a relay station *or in*ormation *lo!in) into or out o* the hi)her %rain centers Re)ulates sleep cycles .ateral )eniculate nucleus
A nucleus o* the thalamus that receives *i%ers *rom the retina an pro6ects *i%ers to the primary visual cortex"

Me ial )eniculate nucleus

A nucleus o* the thalamus that receives *i%ers *rom the au itory system an pro6ects *i%ers to the au itory cortex"

-entrolateral nucleus
A nucleus o* the thalamus that receives inputs *rom the cere%ellum an sen s axons to the primary motor cortex"
*-

*2

+0

 The *ore%rain0 iencephalon

<ypothalamus
A )roup o* nuclei in the iencephalon situate %eneath the thalamus"

A small %ut in*luential %rain structure that controls the pituitary )lan an re)ulates hun)er, thirst, sexual %ehavior, %o y temperature, an a !i e variety o* emotional %ehaviors
+ontrols the autonomic nervous system" +ontrols the anterior an posterior pituitary )lan s" Or)ani7es %ehavior such as *i)htin), *ee in), *leein), an matin)" Inclu es=
7 7 7 7 Optic chiasm Anterior pituitary )lan Neurosecretory cell #osterior pituitary )lan

+1

 The *ore%rain0 iencephalon= <ypothalamus

Optic chiasm
A connection %et!een the optic nerves !here hal* o* the *i%ers o* the optic nerve cross to the contralateral si e

Anterior pituitary )lan

The $master )lan '" The anterior part o* the pituitary )lan ( an en ocrine )lan !hose secretions are controlle %y the hypothalamic hormones"

Neurosecretory cell
A neuron that secretes a hormone or hormone0 li&e su%stance"

#osterior pituitary )lan

The posterior part o* the pituitary )lan ( an en ocrine )lan that contains hormone0secretin) terminal %uttons o* axons !hose cell %o ies lie !ithin the hypothalamus"

+2

+)

+4

 The mi %rain0 mesencephalon

The mi %rain( a re)ion o* the %rain that surroun s the cere%ral a>ue uct( inclu es the tectum an te)mentum" The esencephalon( the central o* the three ma6or ivisions o* the %rain" The structures o* this %rain re)ion act primarily as relay stations throu)h !hich the %asic physiolo)ical *unctions o* the hin %rain are lin&e to the co)nitive *unctions o* the *ore%rain /u%stantia ni)ra The mi %rain structure that controls unconscious motor movements
+*

 The mi %rain0mesencephalon Tectum (DroofE)

The dorsal part of the midbrain, includes the superior and inferior colliculi) 0ncludes8
Superior colliculi 0nferior colliculi Brain stem

Superior colliculi
Protrusions on top of the midbrain, part of the visual system) 0n mammals they are primarily involved in visual refle"es and reactions to movin stimuli

++

 The mi %rain0 mesencephalon

Tectum (DroofE)
0nferior colliculi
Protrusions on top of the midbrain, part of the auditory system) e mentum (Dcoverin E) The ventral part of the midbrain# includes the peria4ueductal ray matter# reticular formation# red nucleus# and substantia ni ra)

Brain stem
The stem of the brain# from the medulla to the diencephalon# e"cludin the cerebellum)

+,

 The mi %rain0 mesencephalon

Te)mentum #eria>ue uctal )ray matter
The re)ion o* the mi %rain surroun in) the cere%ral a>ue uct( contains neural circuits involve in species0typical %ehaviors such as *i)htin) an matin)( involve in sensitivity to pain"

Re nucleus
A lar)e nucleus o* the mi %rain that receives inputs *rom the cere%ellum an motor cortex an sen s axons to motor neurons in the spinal cor "

/u%stantia ni)ra 1$%lac& su%stance'2

A ar&ly staine re)ion o* the te)mentum that contains neurons that communicate !ith the cau ate nucleus an putamen in the %asal )an)lia" ,e)eneration o* the su%stantia ni)ra is involve in #ar&inson?s isease"
+-

+2

 The hin %rain0metencephalon

The most caudal part of the brain, includes the metencephalon and myelencephalon)

Cerebellum (Dlittle brainE)

! maBor part of the brain located dorsal to the pons# containin the two cerebellar hemispheres# covered with the cerebellar corte", important component of the motor system) The brain structure that e"ecutes smooth# skilled body movements and re ulates muscle tone and posture

Cerebellar corte"
The corte" that covers the surface of the cerebellum)
,0

 The hin %rain0metencephalon

.eep cerebellar nuclei
Nuclei located within the cerebellar hemispheres, receive proBections from the cerebellar corte" and send proBections out of the cerebellum to other parts of the brain)

Brainstem
The structure that be ins at the point where the spinal cord enlar es as it enters the brain

Cerebellar peduncle
6ne of three bundles of a"ons that attach each cerebellar hemisphere to the dorsal pons)
,1

 The hin %rain0metencephalon

#ons 1$%ri )e'2
The re)ion o* the metencephalon rostral to the me ulla, cau al to the mi %rain, an ventral to the cere%ellum( A structure in the %rainstem that plays a role in %o y movement an even exerts an in*luence on arousal, sleep an reamin)

Reticular *ormation
A structure in the %rainstem that plays a crucial role in arousal an attention an that screens sensory messa)es enterin) the %rain

Me ulla o%lon)ata
The most cau al portion o* the %rain, locate in the myelencephalon, imme iately rostral to the spinal cor " The part o* the %rainstem that controls vital *unctions such as the car iovascular system, respiration, an s&eletal muscle tone 1%reathin), cou)hin), an s!allo!in)2
,2

(eri heral Nervous System

Somatic Nervous System
*fferent nerves "sensory# +fferent nerves "motor# controls organs un!er voluntary control "mainly muscles#

*utonomic Nervous System

Sym athetic an! arasym athetic nerves
S"#pat%etic and para!"#pat%etic nerve! 6enerall" %ave oppo!ite e44ect!

T,o-stage neural aths$ neuron exiting the CNS syna ses on a secon!-stage neuron before the target organ regulates in!ivi!ual organ function an! homeostasis$ ,) an! for the most art is not subject to voluntary control

(eri heral Nervous System

#eripheral nervous system 1#N/2 The nerves connectin) the central nervous system to the rest o* the %o y +ontains t!o su% ivisions
/omatic ivision Autonomic ivision 3 contains t!o ivisions /ympathetic ivision 1activates2 #arasympathetic ivision 1inhi%its2

(eri heral Nervous System

(eri heral Nervous System

Somatic division Consists of all the sensory nerves# which transmit information from the sense receptorsFeyes# ears# nose# ton ue# and skinFto the central nervous system Consists of all the motor nerves# which relay messa es from the central nervous system to all the skeletal muscles of the body

(eri heral Nervous System

!utonomic division 6perates without any conscious control or awareness on your part Transmits messa es between the central nervous system and the lands# the cardiac muscle# and the smooth muscles

(eri heral Nervous System

!utonomic division (continued) .ivided into two parts
Sympathetic nervous system %obili+es the body3s resources durin stress# emer encies# or heavy e"ertion# preparin the body for action Named the fight-or-flight response by *alter Cannon Parasympathetic nervous system !ssociated with rela"ation and the conservation of ener y, the division that brin s the hei htened bodily responses back to normal followin an emer ency

*utonomic Nervous System

Sympathetic Thoracolumbar Dfi ht or fli htE Second sta e neurons are far from the tar et or an
(arasym athetic Craniosacral .rest an! restore/ Secon! stage neurons are near the target organ

,2

N a m e e a c h ! iv is io n o f t h e n e r v o u s s y s t e m a n ! ! e s c r ib e it s r o le 0
N e rv o u s S y s te m 7 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 S in a l a n ! C r a n ia l N e r v e s 80 2222222222 B r a in S in a l C o r !

10 2222222222 C o n n e c t c e n tra l s y s te m t o v o lu n t a r y m u s c le s

60 2222222222 C o n n e c ts c e n tra l s y s te m t o n o n v o lu n t a r y m u s c le s a n ! g la n ! s 50 2222222222 C a lm in g 4 r e a ! ie s b o ! y f o r r e s t r o a t io n o f e n eCo r gyright y 9 *llyn : Bacon 8;;3

30 2222222222 * r o u s in g 4 r e ! ie s b o ! y f o r a c t iv it y 4 u s e o f e n e r g y

!nswers Peripheral nervous system Central nervous system Somatic division !utonomic division Sympathetic division Parasympathetic division

Co yright 9 *llyn : Bacon 8;;3

 /pinal cor
The cord of nervous tissue that e"tends caudally from the medulla# the base of the brain throu h the neck and spinal column# that transmits messa es between the brain and the peripheral nervous system Protected by bone and spinal fluid

9ray matter / inner component / primarily cell bodies *hite matter / outer / mainly myelinated a"ons .orsal / afferent# sensory -entral / efferent# motor

-2

-)

 Com are the relative amount of gray an! ,hite matter at each level of the s inal cor!0 <n the cervical segment$ there is a relatively large amount of ,hite matter0 This attern is cause! by the many axons going u to the brain from all levels of the s inal cor! *ND there are many axons traveling from the brain !o,n to !ifferent segments of the s inal cor!0 <n lo,er segments of the s inal cor!$ there is less ,hite matter because there are fe,er axons traveling to an! from the brain0 There are also !ifferences in the gray matter0 <n the cervical segment$ the ventral horn "the lo,er half of the segment# is enlarge!0 *lso in the lumbar segment that is illustrate!$ the ventral horn is large0 These segments are those that contain motor neurons that control movement of the arms "cervical segment# an! legs "lumbar segment#0

-4

The Spinal Cord

The human s inal column is ma!e u of 11 bones) = vertebrae in the cervical region$ 78 in the thoracic region$ 3 in the lumbar region$ 3 in the sacral region an! 6 in the coccygeal region0 >o,ever$ in a!ults the bones in the sacral region join to form one bone calle! the sacrum4 the bones in the cocygeal region join to form one bone calle! the coccyx0
-*

 /pinal cor
/pinal root
A %un le o* axons surroun e %y connective tissue that occur in pairs, !hich *use an *orm a spinal nerve"

+au a e>uina
A %un le o* spinal roots locate cau al to the en o* the spinal cor "

+au al %loc&
The anesthesia an paralysis o* the lo!er part o* the %o y pro uce %y in6ection o* a local anesthetic into the cere%rospinal *lui surroun in) the cau a e>uina"

,orsal root
The spinal root that contains incomin) 1a**erent2 sensory *i%ers"

-entral root
The spinal root that contains the out)oin) 1e**erent2 motor *i%ers"
-+

 The #eripheral Nervous /ystem

The spinal nerves A**erent axon
An axon irecte to!ar the central nervous system, conveyin) sensory in*ormation"

,orsal root )an)lion

A no ule on a orsal root that contains cell %o ies o* a**erent spinal nerve neurons"

8**erent axon
An axon irecte a!ay *rom the central nervous system, conveyin) motor comman s to muscles an )lan s"

+ranial nerves
T!elve pairs o* peripheral nerves attache irectly to the %rain that serve sensory an motor *unctions o* the hea , nec&, an shoul ers"

-a)us nerve 1$!an erin)'2

The lar)est o* the cranial nerves, conveyin) e**erent *i%ers o* the parasympathetic ivision o* the autonomic nervous system to or)ans o* the thoracic an a% ominal cavities"
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 The #eripheral Nervous /ystem The autonomic nervous system

Somatic nervous system
The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the movement of skeletal muscles or transmits somatosensory information to the central nervous system)

!utonomic nervous system

The portion of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body3s ve etative functions)

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 The #eripheral Nervous /ystem The autonomic nervous system(sympathetic division

Sympathetic division
The portion of the autonomic nervous system that controls functions that accompany arousal and e"penditure of ener y)

Sympathetic an lia
Nodules that contain synapses between pre an lionic and post an lionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system)

Pre an lionic neuron

The efferent neuron of the autonomic nervous system whose cell body is located in a cranial nerve nucleus or in the intermediate horn of the spinal ray matter and whose terminal buttons synapse upon post an lionic neurons in the autonomic nervous system)
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 The #eripheral Nervous /ystem The autonomic nervous system( sympathetic division
Post an lionic neuron
Neurons of the autonomic nervous system that form synapses directly with their tar et or an)

!drenal medulla
The inner portion of the adrenal land# located atop the kidney# controlled by sympathetic nerve fibers, secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine)

2)

 The #eripheral Nervous /ystem The autonomic nervous system( parasympathetic division
The portion of the autonomic nervous system that controls functions that occur durin a rela"ed state) Supports activities involved with increases in the body3s supply of stored ener y includin salivation# astric and intestinal motility# secretion of di estive Buices# and increased blood flow to the astrointestinal system)

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2*

+n!ocrine System
>ndocrine system ! system of ductless lands in various parts of the body that manufacture and secrete hormones into the bloodstream or lymph fluids# thus affectin cells in other parts of the body $ormones
! substance manufactured and released in one part of the body that affects other parts of the body

+n!ocrine System

+n!ocrine System
Pituitary land
The endocrine land located in the brain and often called the Dmaster land#E which releases hormones that control other endocrine lands and which also releases a rowth hormone Thyroid land Produces the important hormone thyro"in# which re ulates the rate at which food is metaboli+ed

+n!ocrine System

+n!ocrine System
Pancreas
'e ulates the body3s blood su ar levels by releasin the hormones insulin and luca on into the bloodstream

!drenal lands
! pair of endocrine lands that release hormones that prepare the body for emer encies and stressful situations and also release small amounts of the se" hormones

+n!ocrine System
9onads
Se" lands, the ovaries in females and the testes in males 'elease the se" hormones that make reproduction possible and that are responsible for the secondary se" characteristics