Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
A MUSCLE TWITCH
Length-Tension Relationship
Points to Remember: 1. When the muscle is at its Optimal length, it contracts with the maximum tension. 2. Force of contraction (tension generated) is maximal at the resting (Optimal) length & decreases if the muscle is longer or shorter.
Energy sources
The main source of energy for muscle contraction is ATP. ATP is used in 3 different steps in contraction-relaxation process. These steps are: 1. Splitting of ATP by myosin ATPase provides the energy for the power stroke of the cross bridge. 2. Binding (but not splitting) of a fresh molecule of ATP to myosin lets the bridge detach from the actin filament at the end of a power stroke so that the cycle can be repeated. This ATP is later split to provide energy for the next stroke of the cross bridge. 3. Active transport of Ca2+ back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum during relaxation depends on energy derived from the breakdown of ATP and is used by the ATP- dependant Calcium Pump. The concentration of ATP in a Muscle fiber= 4mmole. It is sufficient to maintain full contraction for only 1 to 2 seconds at most.
SOURCES OF ATP
There are 3 main sources of ATP: 1. Creatine Phosphate/ Phosphagen Energy system: - takes place within the muscle -uses the Phosphate bond from Creatine phosphate - First source of ATP when exercise begins; instantaneous energy available. - short bursts of high-intensity exercise. E.g. high jump, sprints 2. Oxidative phosphorylation: aerobic or endurance type exercise. - takes place in the mitochondria - requires oxygen & uses fatty acids, glucose in blood and glycogen stores - to sustain long duration mild to moderate aerobic exercise. E.g. walks, jogging, swimming, marathon runners. 3. Glycolysis: anaerobic or high-intensity exercise - when oxygen demands are not met & oxygen NOT available. - uses glycogen stores of the muscle - proceeds very rapidly and leads to formation of lactic acid. - moderate to severe exercise. E.g. 800 meter run. Cannot be sustained for long time.
1. MUSCLE FATIGUE
Definition: Fatigue occurs when prolonged & strong stimulation of an exercising muscle reaches a stage when the muscle is no longer able to respond to the stimulation with the same degree of contractile activity. Is of 2 main types: 1. Muscle fatigue: occurs in the muscle & is a defense mechanism that protects the muscle by preventing it from reaching a point where no ATP will be available. 2. Central fatigue: more psychological. Occurs when CNS no longer activates the motor neurons supplying the muscles. Person stops exercising even though the muscles can still perform.
1. MUSCLE FATIGUE
CAUSES: 1. Depletion of Glycogen energy stores. 2. Accumulation of Hydrogen ions from lactic acidinterfere with cross- bridge functions. 3. Intracellular acidosis from lactic acid inhibits glycolysis enzymes & slows ATP production. 4. NT depletion at the NMJ. 5. Central fatigue- lack of will & sleep. 6. Accumulation of extracellular K+
2. OXYGEN DEBT
The body normally contains about 2 liters of oxygen:
0.5 liters Air in lungs
0.25 liters Body Fluids 1 liter Hb of Blood 0.3 liters Muscle with Myoglobin
2. OXYGEN DEBT
1) 2) 3) During muscular exercise, a lot more Oxygen is supplied to the muscle than is present. O2 consumption = energy expended All stored O2 is used within a minute or so After exercise is over: 2 liters of normally present blood must be replenished 9 liters extra must be provided for: Resynthesis of the Creatine Phosphate. Conversion of lactate into pyruvate. Form fresh supplies of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
2. OXYGEN DEBT
All this extra Oxygen that must be repaid (11.5liters) to the body is called the Oxygen Debt. SO, A person must breathe rapidly even after the exercise is over!
3. MUSCLE TONE
Even when muscles are at rest, a certain amount of tautness usually remainsThis is called Muscle Tone. Cause: Low rate of nerve impulses coming from the spinal cord which are controlled by the: 1. Signals from the brain to the spinal cordanterior motor neurons 2. Signals that originate in the muscle spindles located in the muscle itself-Intrafusal fibers
4. MOTOR UNIT
Definition: All the muscle fibers innervated by a single nerve fiber are called a MOTOR UNIT. OR Each single motor neuron plus all the muscle fibers it innervates is called a MOTOR UNIT. One motor neuron innervates a number of muscle fibers, but each muscle fiber is supplied by only one motor neuron. When this neuron is stimulated, all the muscle fibers supplied by it contract together. Each muscle consists of a number of mixed motor units. For a weak contraction of the whole muscle, only one or a few of its motor units are activated. The number of muscle fibers per motor unit and the number of motor units per muscle vary widely, depending on the specific function of the muscle. E.g. the kind of work that the muscle performs..
4. MOTOR UNIT
Number of muscle fibers in a motor unit vary in different muscles from 2 or 3 to more than 1000. Average: 80-100 muscle fibers to a motor unit. Muscles which have to perform fine grade, intricate movements have motor units with as few as 3-5 muscle fibers to a unit .e.g. hand, eye Muscles with relatively crude movements, number of muscle fibers is quite large. E.g. muscles of lower limbs In one whole muscle, different motor units overlap
6. b: FREQUENCY SUMMATION
Definitions: Force of contraction increases by increasing the frequency of contractions. Two twitches from 2 action potentials add together to produce greater tension in the fiber than produced by a single action potential. This is called twitch summation or frequency summation. Force generated by the contraction of a single muscle fiber can be by increasing the rate at which the action potentials stimulate the muscle fiber. If repeated APs are separated by long intervals of time, muscle fibers have time to relax completely between stimuli. If interval of time between AP shortened, the Muscle fiber will not have relaxed completely at time of 2nd stimulus, resulting in a more forceful contraction.
A single action potential in a muscle fiber produces only a twitch. Let us see what happens when a second action potential occurs in a muscle fiber. If the muscle fiber has completely relaxed before the next action potential takes place, a second twitch of the same magnitude as the first occurs. The same excitationcontraction events take place each time, resulting in identical twitch responses. If, however, the muscle fiber is stimulated a second time before it has completely relaxed from the first twitch, a second action potential causes a second contractile response, which is added piggyback on top of the first twitch.
FREQUENCY SUMMATION
When APs come one after the other after the relaxation of the muscle is complete. When APs come one after the other before relaxation of the muscle is complete
6. b: FREQUENCY SUMMATION
If APs continue to stimulate the muscle repeatedly at short intervals, there is no time for complete relaxation between contractions Individual twitches fuse into one continuous contraction Whole muscle contraction appears to be smooth, sustained & of maximal strength This is called TETANIZATION or TETANUS (A tetanic contraction is usually three to four times stronger than a single twitch.)
Physiologic basis of twitch summation & Tetanus: The main reason is the sustained elevation in cytosolic Ca2+ permitting greater cross-bridge cycling. As the frequency of action potentials increases, the duration of elevated cytosolic Ca2+ concentration increases, and contractile activity likewise increases until a maximum tetanic contraction is reached. With tetanus, the maximum number of cross-bridge binding sites remain uncovered so that cross-bridge cycling, and consequently tension development, is at its peak.
2. INCOMPLETE or UNFUSED TETANUS: if repeated stimuli at a slower rate, then muscle fiber relaxes slightly/incompletely between summated stimuli but the relaxation remains incomplete. CAUSE: Enough Ca2+ ions are maintained in the muscle sarcoplasm so that contractile state is sustained without allowing relaxation between AP.
Treppe Effect
ISOTONIC CONTRACTION
There are two primary types of contraction, depending on whether the muscle changes length during contraction. They are: Isotonic contraction: occurs when muscle contracts with shortening of length but against a constant load, thus, the tension on the muscle remains constant (iso= same, tonic= tension) OR A contraction that creates force & moves a load.
Isotonic contractions are used for body movements and for moving external objects. E.g. picking up a book, a box.
ISOMETRIC CONTRACTION
Isometric contraction: occurs when muscle contracts without shortening in length. (iso= same, metric= measure or length) OR A contraction that creates force without movement. Isometric contractions can be seen in 2 cases: 1. If the object you are trying to lift is too heavy. 2. If the tension developed in the muscle is deliberately less than needed to move the load. E.g. standing for long time or holding up a glass of water while taking sips.
9. ELECTROMYOGRAPHY
Activity of motor units can be studied by electromyography, the process of recording the electrical activities of the muscle on a cathode ray oscilloscope. No anesthesia is required. Small metal discs are placed on the skin overlying the muscle as pick-up electrodes or hypodermic needle electrodes are used. The record obtained with such electrodes is the Electromyogram (EMG).
10. RECRUITMENT
If each motor unit contracts in an all-or-none manner, how then can muscle create graded contractions of varying force & duration? The answer lies in the fact that muscles are composed of multiple motor units of different types. This allows the muscle to vary contraction by: 1. Changing the types of motor units that are active OR 2. Changing the number of motor units that are responding at any one time. For a weak contraction of the whole muscle, only one or a few of its motor units are activated. For stronger & stronger contraction, more & more motor units are recruited. This is called Motor Unit Recruitment.
10. RECRUITMENT
At rest EMG shows little or no activity With minimum voluntary activity a few motor units discharge, & with increasing voluntary effort more & more are brought into play----Recruitment of motor units Asynchronous Recruitment: One way that CNS avoids fatigue in a sustained contraction The CNS alternates between the different motor units supplying the same muscle so that some of the motor units rest between contractions, preventing fatigue. e.g. during a sustained contraction, only a portion of the muscles motor units is involved as is necessary in muscles supporting the weight of the body against the force of gravity. The body alternates the motor units as shifts at a factory, to give the motor units that have been active an opportunity to rest while others take over. Changing of the shifts is carefully co-ordinated so that the sustained contraction is smooth rather than jerky.
MUSCLE DISEASES
MUSCLE CRAMPS
Definition: Painful, sustained & involuntary contractions of the muscle with motor units contracting repeatedly. CAUSE: There can be many causes the most common of which are: Due to increased excitability of the peripheral parts of the nerves Electrolyte disturbance Nocturnal cramps (night cramps) Cramps due to strenous exercise Dehydration.