Chapter 7

Fundamentals of Energy Fossil Fuels and Nuclear Energy

Tar Sand
Tar sands, also referred to as oil sands or bituminous sands, are a combination of clay, sand, water, and a solid, tar-like petroleum, called bitumen The bitumen is far too thick to flow out of the rock 85% of all tar sand deposits occur in Canada Most of the remaining 15% is found in Venezuela and Russia, but these deposits will probably never be economical to mine

Tar Sand
About 88% of Canadas known petroleum reserves are tar sands

Tar Sand
Fortunately, the Canadian tar sand are concentrated in three regions in the state of Alberta This concentration means that some of these deposits are currently economic to mine In fact, serious tar sand mining began before WWII

Tar Sand
There are about 174 billion barrels of crude bitumen which are economically recoverable from the three Alberta oil sands areas at current prices using current technology This is equivalent to about 10% of the estimated 1,700 and 2,500 billion barrels of bitumen in place

Tar Sand
It takes two tons of tar sand to produce one barrel of oil

Tar Sand
Note the processing plant in the distance

Tar Sand
The oil sands after surface removal are further broken up and then extracted from the rock pores by subjecting the material to hot water and other chemicals, such as sodium hydroxide The oil-bearing sand is piped into a large settling tank where the heavy sand settles to the bottom, water settles above that, and the oil floats to the top, where it can be removed for refining

Tar Sand
For every barrel of oil produced from tar sands in Alberta, more than 80 kg of greenhouse gases are released into the atmosphere and between 2 and 4 barrels of waste water are dumped into tailing ponds that have flooded about 50 square kilometers of forest and bogs

Tar Sand
Critics contend that measures taken to minimize environmental and health risks posed by large-scale mining operations are inadequate, potentially causing damage to archaeological sites and natural resources

Tar Sand
The open-pit mining of the Alberta oils sands destroys the boreal forest, the bogs, the rivers as well as the natural landscape The mining industry believes that the boreal forest will eventually colonize the reclaimed lands, yet 30 years after the opening of the first open pit mine in the region no land is considered as having been "restored

Coal

Coal
Coal currently provides 23% of the total U.S. energy needs Now that oil and gas are dwindling, many energy producers and users are looking again at the potential of coal

Formation of Coal Deposits

Unlike petroleum, coal is not formed from marine organisms, but from the remains of land plants A swampy setting, in which plant growth is lush and where there is water to cover fallen trees, dead leaves and other plant debris, is ideal for the initial stages to create coal

Formation of Coal Deposits

The formation of coal from dead plant matter requires burial, pressure, heat and time The process works best under anaerobic conditions (no oxygen) since the reaction with oxygen during decay destroys the organic matter

It is the carbon content of the coal that supplies most of its heating value
The greater the carbon to oxygen ratio the harder the coal, the more reduced the state of the carbons and the more potential energy it contains

Formation of Coal Deposits

The products of coalification are divided into four major categories based on the carbon content of the material Peat Lignite

Bituminous
Anthracite

Peat
Peat is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation matter and is the first stage in the formation of coal Peat forms in wetlands, variously called bogs, moors, muskegs, pocosins, mires, and swamps It contains a large amount of water and must be dried before use Historically, it has been used as a source of heat and burns with a long flame and considerable smoke

Peat
Peat deposits are found in many places around the world, notably in Russia, Ireland, Finland, Scotland, Poland, northern Germany, the Netherlands and Scandinavia, and in North America

Approximately 60% of the world's wetlands have peat

Peat
Peat is still mined as a fuel in Ireland and England

The peat is stacked to slowly dry out

Lignite
Lignite is the second step in the formation of coal and is formed when peat is subjected to increased vertical pressure from accumulating sediments Lignite, often referred to as brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal and used almost exclusively as fuel for steam-electric power generation
It has a high inherent moisture content, sometimes as high as 66 percent, and very high ash content compared to bituminous coal

Lignite
Because of its low energy density, brown coal is inefficient to transport and is not traded extensively on the world market compared to higher coal grades It is often burned in power stations constructed very close to the mines

Bituminous
Bituminous Coal is the third stage of coal formation Additional pressure over time has made it compact and virtually all traces of plant life have disappeared It is of higher quality than lignite coal but of poorer quality than anthracite coal It is greatly used in industry as a source of heat energy

Bituminous
Bituminous coal is usually black, sometimes dark brown, often with well-defined bands of bright and dull material It is a relatively hard coal containing a tarlike substance called bitumen

Bituminous
Bituminous coal is a complex molecular mix of 60-80% carbon, plus oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, plus some occasional impurities like sulfur

Coking Coal
When used for many industrial processes, bituminous coal must first be "coked" to remove volatile components Coking is achieved by heating the coal in the absence of oxygen, which drives off volatile hydrocarbons such as propane, benzene and other aromatic hydrocarbons, and some sulfur gases and a considerable amount of the contained water of the bituminous coal Coking coal is used in the manufacture of steel, where carbon must be as volatile-free and ashfree as possible

Anthracite
Anthracite is formed during the forth stage of coal formation

It is the most valuable and highest grade of coal, and has a carbon content of 92-98%
Physically, anthracite differs from bituminous coal by its greater hardness and higher density Plus, it burns far more efficiently with less smoke

Fuel Efficiency
As the coals becomes harder, their carbon content increases, and so does the amount of heat released Anthracite produces twice the energy (BTUs) of lignite

U.S. Coal Reserves

The U.S. possesses 25% of all the known coal in the world

U.S. Coal Reserves

U.S. coal reserves represent about 50 times the energy remaining in proven oil reserves and 40 times the energy in proven natural gas reserves

U.S. Coal Reserves

The U.S. has consumed half of our oil reserves, but only a few percent of our coal reserves

Our coal reserves could meet current U.S. energy needs for 200 years (compared to 50 years for oil)

World Coal Reserves

46% of the U.S. reserves are bituminous and anthracite The remaining 54% is lignite

Coal-bed Methane
During the formation of coal deposits, quantities of methane-rich gas are also formed Historically, methane has been considered as a hazardous nuisance In fact, currently it is usually burned off rather than recovered It is estimated that 100 trillion cubic feet of methane can be economically recovered from existing U.S. coal beds

Coal-bed Methane
U.S. coal deposits are already mapped, so there would be no exploration cost Waste water is a potential pollution problem Coal-bed methane is already being produced in Utah

Coal Gasification

One of the most advanced - and cleanest - coal power plants in the world is Tampa Electric's Polk Power Station in Florida
It uses a coal gasification process that turns coal into a gas that can be cleaned of almost all pollutants

Coal Gasification

The coal is heated inside a large oven and blasted with steam

The coal is converted into carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas

Hydrogen gas burns very easily

Coal Gasification
This 2544-ton-per-day coal gasification demonstration pilot plant in Pennsylvania, will have energy conversion efficiencies 20 to 35% higher than those of conventional pulverized-coal steam power plants

Coal Liquefaction
Coal can also be converted into liquid fuels like gasoline or diesel by several different processes This is an attractive technology because it is well developed and thus could be implemented fairly rapidly and there are relatively large quantities of coal reserves

Coal Liquefaction
Estimates of the cost of producing liquid fuels from coal suggest that domestic U.S. production of fuel from coal becomes costcompetitive with oil priced at around $35 US per barrel (currently over $100 per barrel)

A coal liquefaction test plant in Japan

Coal & Environment

A major problem with coal is the pollution associated with its mining and use

Coal is a major source of the greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide

In fact, coal releases more carbon dioxide per unit energy burned than natural gas or oil

Coal & Sulfur

The pollutant of special concern with coal is sulfur The sulfur content of coal can be as high as 3%, with some in the form of the iron sulfate mineral pyrite (FeS2) and some bound in the remaining organic matter When a coal containing sulfur is burned, sulfur gases, notably sulfur dioxide (SO2), are emitted

These gases are poisonous and are extremely irritating to both eyes and lungs

Acid Rain
These sulfur gases also react with water in the atmosphere to produce sulfuric acid, which is a very strong acid This acid falls to earth as acid rain

These trees near coal-fired power plants have been killed by acid rain

A Hard Rains A-gonna Fall

Acidity in rain is measured by collecting samples of rain and measuring its pH

The areas of greatest acidity (lowest pH values) are located in the Northeastern U.S.

A Hard Rains A-gonna Fall

This pattern of high acidity is caused by the large number of cities, the dense population, and the concentration of power and industrial plants in the Northeast

A Hard Rains A-gonna Fall

Acid rain can acidify soil, stunting plant growth It can kill fish and other aquatic life, dissolve rocks, destroy the surface of building facades and monuments Most coal-burning power plants have scrubbers in the smoke stacks that remove most, but not all of the sulfur gas emissions Low sulfur coal, less than 1%, is the coal of choice

Ash
Coal also produces a tremendous amount of solid waste

The ash residue left after coal is burned is typically 5-20% of the original volume
It is primarily composed primarily of noncombustible silicate minerals, but also contains toxic metals

Ash
If released with emission gases, the ash fouls the air

When dumped onto the surface, the fine-grained ash weathers very rapidly, releasing toxic metals, such as selenium, creating a serious water-pollution threat
The average coalfired power plant produces one million tons of ash per year, which is usually buried

Ash
On December 22, 2008, there was a catastrophic collapse of the dyke around an ash retention pond at the TVA coalpowered electricity generating facility at Kingston, Tennessee

Ash
TVA estimated that 5.4 million gallons of wet fly ash had escaped thru the breach

Ash
About 40 private homes, buildings and other structures were damaged or destroyed by the ash flow

Some residents were forced to leave their homes forever

Ash
TVA denies that the fly ash is dangerous to the environment or to human health However, TVAs own records revealed that the 5.4 million gallons of fly ash contained 44,000 pounds of arsenic 49,000 pounds of lead 142,000 pounds of manganese 1.4 million pounds of barium compounds

Ash
TVA has been cleaning up the disaster for almost 3 years, but the progress is very slow It will cost one billion dollars to clean the mess up 14 law suits have been files, but TVA claims immunity by the principle of discretionary function

Company Script
I owe my soul to the company store - from the song 16 Tons by Tennessee Ernie Ford

Miners were paid with with company script, called tokens, which could only be used at the company store

Coal Mining Deaths

Underground coal mining is notoriously dangerous

The decrease in coal mining fatalities is due to:

Better enforcement of safety regulations More surface strip mining of coal

Coal Mining Deaths

In particular, coal mining has a bad history of dangerous working conditions, serious health problems and the highest death rate among miners

1907 Monongah Mine Disaster

The Monongah No. 6 & No. 8 Mine disaster in West Virginia occurred at 10:20 am on December 6, 1907 and is the the worst mining disaster in American history The official death count is 362, but it is believed that over 500 were killed An electrical spark ignited methane and coal dust

Upper Big Branch Mine Explosion

Upper Big Branch Mine explosion occurred on April 5, 2010 and killed 29 miners

Due to the large concentration of toxic gases in the mine, MSHA investigators had to wait for over two months to enter the mine to investigate the explosion

Upper Big Branch Mine Explosion

The mine was operated by Massey Energy Investigators faulted Massey for failure to properly maintain its ventilation systems which allowed methane levels to increase to dangerous amounts MSHA had found 505 mining violations at the mine in 2009, but had not acted on any of them Massey was accused in the final report of intimidating miners and state officials

Upper Big Branch Mine Explosion

The company that purchased Massey was ordered to pay a MSHA $10.8 civil fine plus $209 million for the Dept. of Justice settlement

The settlement comprises $46.5 million in restitution payments, $34.8 million in fines for safety citations, $48 million for a health and safety research and development trust fund, and $80 million for safety improvements during two years The restitution payments are $1.5 million to each of the two survivors and the families of each the 29 fatal casualties

Surface Mining
In 1950, only 20% of U.S. coal was obtained by surface strip mining By 2000, over 65% of U.S. coal was from surface strip mining This is partly due to increased mining of nearsurface coal seams out west

Surface Mining
50% of U.S. coal reserves are in the western U.S., of which about 40% can be surfaced mined

Coal Seam Fires

Coal Seam Fires in U.S.

An underground coal mine has been on fire in Centralia, Pennsylvania since 1962 It was started by a fire in an adjacent dump Over 1000 residents have been located, at a cost of over $40 million

Coal Seam Fires in U.S.

The Centralia fire closed highway 61

Coal Seam Fires in U.S.

A coal seam fire has been burning for more than a century near Glenwood Springs, Colorado It caused a major forest fire in 2002

Coal Seam Fires in U.S.

DENVER A Golden-based geologist is proposing a pilot project to tap an underground coal seam fire west of Glenwood Springs for energy and other resources. Lindsey V. Maness Jr. of In-Situ Coal Energy Corp. says that pumping oxygen to the fire can produce coal oil, electricity through turbines and other methods, mineral byproducts and a greenhouse operation to capture heat and carbon dioxide.

Coal Seam Fires in China

It is estimated that coal mine fires in China burn about 200 million tons of coal each year These fires release about 360 million metric tons of carbon dioxide greenhouse gas emissions per year

Coal Seam Fires

How do you put out a coal seam fire?

Coal Seam Fires

Abatement methods range from complete excavation and quenching with water (where practicable and affordable) to the use of specialty foaming cements and fire fighting foams that are injected into the fire through boreholes drilled from the ground surface. The intent of the injection is to isolate the fire with a barrier of foaming cement followed by the extinguishment of the fire by using a fire fighting foam. Other techniques that may be used include the use of liquid nitrogen to extinguish the fire by the rapid removal of heat. - Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement, U.S. Department of the Interior