1

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOME

explain clearly the basic concept,
components and standard involved in
wireless communication system. (C2)
CLO1
handle systematically the related
wireless communication equipments in
performing the assigned practical
work. (P3)
CLO2
display good communication skill
through presentation of any given
essay question. (A3)
CLO3
3
Concept of wave propagation in cellular
systems.
Interference in cellular communication system.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Wave propagation in cellular
systems.
5
At the end of the lesson, students are able to:
Understand the concept of wave propagation in
cellular systems.
Describe the model of free space propagation.
Identify the types of free space propagation
phenomena.
a. Reflection b. Diffraction c. Scattering
Describe the phenomena of free space
propagation
Describe a microwave line-of-sight.
Describe the model of small scale fading.
OBJECTIVES
Radio Wave Propagation
Radio waves extends from a frequency of
30 kHz to 300 GHz.
In free space, radio waves propagate in
straight line (LOS) and are reflected off
objects.
Radio waves on the earth are affected by
the terrain of the ground, the atmosphere
and the natural and artificial objects on the
terrain.

Radio Wave Propagation
3 main propagation means
on the earth:
Ground wave
Ionespheric or
Sky wave
Trophospheric
Wave
CONCEPT OF RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION
IN CELLULAR SYSTEMS
RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION -
Ground Wave
travels in contact with earths surface
reflection, refraction and scattering by
objects on the ground
transmitter and receiver need NOT see
each other
affects all frequencies
at VHF or higher, provides more reliable
propagation means
signal dies off rapidly as distance
increases.
Radio Wave Propagation
Ground Wave
Follows contour of the earth
Can Propagate considerable distances
Frequencies up to 2 MHz
Example; AM radio
RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION -
Ionospheric or Sky Wave
Reflected back to earth by ionospheric
layer of the earth atmosphere
By repeated reflection, communication
can be established over 1000s of miles
Mainly at frequencies below 30MHz
More effective at times of high sunspot
activity
Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere back
down to earth
Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth
between ionosphere and earths surface
Reflection effect caused by refraction
Examples; Amateur radio, CB radio
RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION -
Ionospheric or Sky Wave
THE MODEL OF FREE SPACE
PROPAGATION - Tropospheric Wave
Bending (refraction) of wave in the
lower atmosphere
VHF communication possible over a
long distance
bending increases with frequency so
higher frequency more chance of
propagation
More of an annoyance for VHF or UHF
(cellular)
When electrons move, they create
electromagnetic waves that can
propagate through the space
Number of oscillations per second of an
electromagnetic wave is called its
frequency, f, measured in Hertz.
The distance between two consecutive
maxima is called the wavelength,
designated by l.
14
By attaching an antenna of the
appropriate size to an electrical circuit, the
electromagnetic waves can be broadcast
efficiently and received by a receiver
some distance away.
In vacuum, all electromagnetic waves
travel at the speed of light: c = 3x10
8
m/sec.
In copper or fiber the speed slows down to
about 2/3 of this value.
Relation between f, l , c: lf = c

The radio, microwave, infrared, and visible
light portions of the spectrum can all be
used to transmit information
By modulating the amplitude, frequency,
or phase of the waves.
16
Radio waves are;
Easy to generate
Can travel long distances
Can penetrate buildings
They are both used for indoor and
outdoor communication
They are omni-directional: can travel in all
directions
They can be narrowly focused at high
frequencies (greater than 100MHz) using
parabolic antennas (like satellite dish)
17
Properties of radio waves are frequency
dependent
At low frequencies, they pass through
obstacles well, but the power falls off
sharply with distance from source
At high frequencies, they tend to travel
in straight lines and bounce of
obstacles (they can also be absorbed
by rain)
They are subject to interference from
other radio wave sources


EP602-WIRELESS COMMUNICATION/CHAPTER 5
19
At VLF, LF, and MF bands,
radio waves follow the
ground. AM radio
broadcasting uses MF band
At HF bands, the ground
waves tend to be absorbed
by the earth. The waves that
reach ionosphere (100-500km
above earth surface), are
refracted and sent back to
earth.
absorption
reflection
Ionosphere
20
LOS path
Reflected Wave
-Directional antennas are used
-Waves follow more direct paths
- LOS: Line-of-Sight Communication
- Reflected wave interfere with the
original signal
VHF Transmission
Waves behave more like light at higher
frequencies
Difficulty in passing obstacles
More direct paths
They behave more like radio at lower
frequencies
Can pass obstacles
21
Transmission path between sender and
receiver could be
Line-of-Sight (LOS)
Non Line-of-Sight (NLOS)- Obstructed
by buildings, mountains and foliage
Even speed of motion effects the fading
characteristics of the channel

22
The physical mechanisms that govern
radio propagation are complex and
diverse, but generally attributed to the
following three factors.
Electromagnetic waves propagate
through environments where they are
reflected, scattered, and diffracted
by walls, terrain, buildings, and other
objects.
23
Radio wave propagation is affected by the
following mechanisms:
reflection at large obstacles
scattering at small obstacles
diffraction at edges
reflection
scattering
diffraction
Reflection
Reflections arise when the plane waves
are incident upon a surface with
dimensions that are very large
compared to the wavelength
Example: reflections from earth and
buildings
These reflections may interfere with
the original signal constructively or
destructively


Other Types of Reflection
Corner reflector Parabolic reflector Diffuse Reflection
Diffraction
Diffraction occurs according to Huygens's
principle when there is an obstruction
between the transmitter and receiver
antennas, and secondary waves are
generated behind the obstructing body.
Explains how radio signals can travel urban
and rural environments without a line-of-
sight path.

29
ILLUSTRATION OF DIFFRACTION
ILLUSTRATION OF DIFFRACTION
Scattering
Scattering occurs when the plane waves are
incident upon an object whose dimensions are on
the order of a wavelength or less, and causes the
energy to be redirected in many directions.
They are produced by small objects, rough
surfaces and other irregularities on the channel
Follows same principles with diffraction
Causes the transmitter energy to be radiated in
many directions
Lamp posts and street signs may cause scattering

34
Building Blocks
D
R
S
R: Reflection
D: Diffraction
S: Scattering
transmitter
receiver
D
Street
Rapid fluctuation of the amplitude of a radio signal over a
short period of time or travel distance (sub-wavelength)
Cause by: multipath waves and Doppler shift

RADIO PROPAGATION MECHANISM -
Fading
36
RADIO PROPAGATION MECHANISM -
Fading

rapid fluctuations of received signal
strength over short time intervals and/or
travel distances.

Caused by interference from multiple
copies of T
x
signal arriving @ R
x
at
slightly different times
Large-scale
fading
(shadowing)
Long term variation in the mean signal level caused
by the mobile unit moving into the shadow of
surrounding objects
mean signal attenuation versus distance
variation about the mean
Small-scale
fading
(multipath)
Short term fluctuation in the signal amplitude caused
by the local multipath
time spreading: flat fading and frequency selective
fading
time variance of channel: fast fading and slow fading
RADIO PROPAGATION MECHANISMS -
Fading
As a mobile moves through a coverage
area, these 3 mechanisms have an impact
on the instantaneous received signal
strength.
If a mobile does have a clear line of sight
path to the base-station, than diffraction and
scattering will not dominate the propagation.
If a mobile is at a street level without LOS,
then diffraction and scattering will probably
dominate the propagation.

38
RADIO PROPAGATION MECHANISMS
As the mobile moves over small distances,
the instantaneous received signal will
fluctuate rapidly giving rise to small-scale
fading;
The reason is that the signal is the sum of many
contributors coming from different directions and
since the phases of these signals are random, the
sum behave like a noise (Rayleigh fading).
In small scale fading, the received signal power may
change as much as 3 or 4 orders of magnitude
(30dB or 40dB), when the receiver is only moved a
fraction of the wavelength.


39
RADIO PROPAGATION MECHANISMS-
small-scale fading
Factors Influencing Small Scale
Fading;
a. Multipath Propagation
b. Speed of Mobile (Doppler Shift)
c. Speed of surrounding objects
d. Transmission bandwidth of the signal
RADIO PROPAGATION MECHANISMS-
small-scale fading
As the mobile moves away from the transmitter
over larger distances, the local average received
signal will gradually decrease. This is called
large-scale path loss.
Typically the local average received power is computed by
averaging signal measurements over a measurement track of
5l to 40l. (For PCS, this means 1m-10m track)
The models that predict the mean signal
strength for an arbitrary-receiver transmitter (T-
R) separation distance are called large-scale
propagation models
Useful for estimating the coverage area of transmitters

RADIO PROPAGATION MECHANISMS -
large-scale path loss
Small-Scale and Large-Scale Fading
42
14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
T-R Separation (meters)
-70
-60
-50
-40
-30
Received Power (dBm)
This figure is just an illustration
to show the concept. It is not based on read
data.
What is Decibel (dB)
What is dB (decibel):
A logarithmic unit that is used to describe a
ratio.
Let say we have two values P1 and P2.
The difference (ratio) between them can be
expressed in dB and is computed as
follows:
10 log (P1/P2) dB
Example: transmit power P1 = 100 W,
received power P2 = 1 W
The difference is 10log(100/1) = 20
dB.

43
dB
dB unit can describe very big ratios with numbers of
modest size.
See some examples:
Tx power = 100W, Received power = 1W
Tx power is 100 times of received power
Difference is 20dB
Tx power = 100W, Received power = 1mW
Tx power is 100,000 times of received
power
Difference is 50dB
Tx power = 1000W, Received power = 1mW
Tx power is million times of received power
Difference is 60dB
44
dBm
For power differences, dBm is used to denote
a power level with respect to 1mW as the
reference power level.
Let say Tx power of a system is 100W.
Question: What is the Tx power in unit of
dBm?
Answer:
Tx_power(dBm) = 10log(100W/1mW)
= 10log(100W/0.001W) =
10log(100,0000) = 50dBm
45
dBW
For power differences, dBW is used to denote
a power level with respect to 1W as the
reference power level.
Let say Tx power of a system is 100W.
Question: What is the Tx power in unit of
dBW?
Answer:
Tx_power(dBW) = 10log(100W/1W) =
10log(100) = 20dBW.
46
47
Decibel (dB) versus Power Ratio
Comparison of
two Sound Systems
Free-Space Propagation Model
Used to predict the received signal strength when
transmitter and receiver have clear, unobstructed
LOS path between them.
The received power decays as a function of T-R
separation distance raised to some power.
Path Loss: Signal attenuation as a positive
quantity measured in dB and defined as the
difference (in dB) between the effective
transmitter power and received power.
Free-Space Propagation Model
Free space power received by a receiver
antenna separated from a radiating transmitter
antenna by a distance d is given by Friis free
space equation:

P
r
(d) = (P
t
G
t
G
r
l
2
) / ((4p)
2
d
2
L) (5.1)

P
t
is transmited power
P
r
(d) is the received power
G
t
is the trasmitter antenna gain (dimensionless quantity)
G
r
is the receiver antenna gain (dimensionless quantity)
d is T-R separation distance in meters
L is system loss factor not related to propagation (L >= 1)
L = 1 indicates no loss in system hardware (for our purposes
we will take L = 1, so we will igonore it in our calculations).
l is wavelength in meters.

Free-Space Propagation Model
The gain of an antenna G is related to its
affective aperture A
e
by:
G = 4pA
e
/ l
2

[5.2]
The effective aperture of A
e
is related to the physical size
of the antenna,
l is related to the carrier frequency by:
l = c/f = 2pc / w
c
[5.3]
f is carrier frequency in Hertz
w
c
is carrier frequency in radians per second.
c is speed of light in meters/sec
Free-Space Propagation Model
An isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna that
radiates power with unit gain uniformly in all
directions. It is as the reference antenna in
wireless systems.
The effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is
defined as:
EIRP = P
t
G
t
[5.4]

Antenna gains are given in units of dBi (dB gain
with respect to an isotropic antenna) or units of
dBd (dB gain with respect to a half-wave dipole
antenna).
Unity gain means: G is 1 or 0dBi
Free-Space Propagation Model
Path loss, which represents signal attenuation
as positive quantity measured in dB, is defined
as the difference (in dB) between the effective
transmitted power and the received power.

PL(dB) = 10 log (P
t
/P
r
) = -10log[(G
t
G
r
l
2
)/(4p)
2
d
2
] [5.5]
(You can drive this from equation (5.1))

If antennas have unity gains (exclude them)

PL(dB) = 10 log (P
t
/P
r
) = -10log[l
2
/(4p)
2
d
2
] [5.6]
Free-Space Propagation Model
For Friis equation to hold, distance d
should be in the far-field of the transmitting
antenna.
The far-field, or Fraunhofer region, of a
transmitting antenna is defined as the
region beyond the far-field distance d
f
given by:
d
f
= 2D
2
/l [5.7]
D is the largest physical dimension of the antenna.
Additionally, d
f
>> D and d
f
>> l

Free-Space Propagation Model
Reference Distance d
0
It is clear the Equation 1 does not hold for d = 0.
For this reason, models use a close-in distance d
0

as the receiver power reference point.
d
0
should be >= d
f
d
0
should be smaller than any practical distance a
mobile system uses
Received power P
r
(d), at a distance d > d
0
from a
transmitter, is related to P
r
at d
0
, which is expressed
as P
r
(d
0
).
The power received in free space at a distance
greater than d
0
is given by:

P
r
(d) = P
r
(d
0
)(d
0
/d)
2
d >= d
0
>= d
f
[5.8]
Free-Space Propagation Model
Expressing the received power in dBm and dBW
P
r
(d) (dBm) = 10 log [P
r
(d
0
)/0.001W] + 20log(d
0
/d)
where d >= d
0
>= d
f
and P
r
(d
0
) is in units of watts.
[5.9]
P
r
(d) (dBW) = 10 log [P
r
(d
0
)/1W] + 20log(d
0
/d)
where d >= d
0
>= d
f
and P
r
(d
0
) is in units of watts.
[5.10]

Reference distance d
0
for practical systems:
For frequncies in the range 1-2 GHz
1 m in indoor environments
100m-1km in outdoor environments
Example Question
A transmitter produces 50W of power.
A) Express the transmit power in dBm
B) Express the transmit power in dBW
C) If d
0
is 100 m and the received power at
that distance is 0.0035 mW, then find the
received power level at a distance of 10 km.
Assume that the transmit and receive
antennas have unity gains.
Solution
A)
Pt(W) is 50W.
Pt(dBm) = 10log[Pt(mW)/1mW)]
Pt(dBm) = 10log(50x1000)
Pt(dBm) = 47 dBm
B)
Pt(dBW) = 10log[Pt(W)/1W)]
Pt(dBW) = 10log(50)
Pt(dBW) = 17 dBW

Solution
P
r
(d) = P
r
(d
0
)(d
0
/d)
2
Substitute the values into the equation:
P
r
(10 km) = P
r
(100 m)(100 m/10 km)
2

P
r
(10 km) = 0.0035 mW(10
-4
)
P
r
(10 km) = 3.5x10
-10
W
Pr(10 km) [dBm] = 10log(3.5x10
-10
W/1 mW)
= 10log(3.5x10
-7
)


= -64.5 dBm

INTERFERENCE IN
CELLULAR
COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS
Understand interference in cellular communication
system.
Describe co-channel and adjacent channel.
Describe the types of interference in cellular
communication system.
a. Co-channel Interference (CCI)
b. Adjacent channel interference (ACI)
Explain the method to reduce CCI
Calculate co-channel reuse ratio by using the
formula.
List the causes of interference.
OBJECTIVES
Interference is the limiting factor in
performance of all cellular radio systems
What are the sources of interference for a
mobile receiver?
Interference is in both
voice channels
control channels


Interference In Cellular
Communication System
Interference in Cellular System
Two major types of
system-generated
interference:
a) Co-Channel
Interference (CCI)
b) Adjacent
Channel
Interference (ACI)
Co-channel Interference(CCI).
First we look at CCI
Frequency Reuse
Many cells in a given coverage area use
the same set of channel frequencies to
increase system capacity (C)
VC & CC traffic in co-channel cells is an
interfering source to mobiles in Several
different cells

Co-Channel Interference
Cells using the same frequency cause
interference to each other
Called co-channel interference (CCI)
CCI increases as the cluster size N decreases
Important factor for signal quality is the Carrier
to Interference Ratio C/I
Most interference comes from the first tier of
co-channel cells
EP602-WIRELESS COMMUNICATION/CHAPTER 5 64
Co-Channel Interference
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
1
1
1
1
Interfering Cell
First tier
Second tier
D
R

=
=
I
K
k
k
I
C
I
C
1
C/I is calculated as:
The maximum number of K in the first tier is 6 and knowing that
loss path n propagatio =

=
I
K
k
k
D
R
I
C
1

o

= D D I
Interfering signal,
The above equation becomes:
Co-Channel Interference
K
I
= number of interfering cells
( )
1
1
1 1
I
I
K
K
k
k
k
k
C
I
D
q
R

=
=
= =
| |
|
\ .

Rearranging:
and
R
D
q
k
k
=
The q
k
is the co-channel interference
reduction factor with k
th
co-channel
interfering cell.
Co-Channel Interference
Co-Channel Interference
As N decreases the number of frequency
channels per cell increases but C/I
decreases
C/I is improved by different methods
Sectored antennas: reduces K
I

Beam tilting: Reduces power to co-channel
cells
Channel assignment: minimizes activation of
co-channel frequencies, which reduces K
I

68
Adjacent Channel Interference
Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI)
ACI happens because Imperfect Rx
filters allow energy from adjacent
channels to leak into the passband of
other channels
EP602-WIRELESS COMMUNICATION/CHAPTER 5 69
actual filter response

EP602-WIRELESS COMMUNICATION/CHAPTER 5 70
desired filter response
Adjacent Channel Interference
This affects both forward & reverse links
Forward Link base-to-mobile
interference @ mobile Rx from a ______ Tx
(another mobile or another base station that is
not the one the mobile is listening to) when
mobile Rx is ___ away from base station.
signal from base station is weak and others
are somewhat strong.
Reverse Link mobile-to-base
interference @ base station Rx from nearby
mobile Tx when desired mobile Tx is far away
from base station
Adjacent Channel Interference
Near/Far Effect
interfering source is near some Rx when
desired source is far away
ACI is primarily from mobiles in the same
cell
some cell-to-cell ACI does occur as well
but a secondary source
Control of ACI
dont allocate channels within a given cell
from a contiguous band of frequencies
for example, use channels 1, 4, 7, and 10 for a cell.
no channels next to each other

Adjacent Channel Interference
maximize channel separation
separation of as many as N channel
bandwidths
some schemes also seek to minimize ACI
from neighboring cells by not assigning
adjacent channels in neighboring cells

Adjacent Channel Interference
74
EP602-WIRELESS COMMUNICATION/CHAPTER 5
Originally 666 channels, then 10 MHz of spectrum was
added
666+166 = 832 channels
395 VC plus 21 CC per service provider (providers A &
B)
395*2 = 790, plus 42 control channels
Provider A is a company that has not traditionally
provided telephone service
Provider B is a traditional wireline operator
21 VC groups with 19 channels/group
at least 21 channel separation for each group
Adjacent Channel Interference
for N = 7 3 VC groups/cell
For example, choose groups 1A, 1B, and 1C for a
cell so channels 1, 8, 15, 22, 29, 36, etc. are used.
57 channels/cell
at least 7 channel separation for each cell group
to have high quality on control channels, 21 cell reuse is
used for CCs
instead of reusing a CC every 7 cells, as for VCs,
reuse every 21 cells (after every three clusters)
greater distance between control channels, so less
CCI

76
Adjacent Channel Interference
use high quality filters in base stations
better filters are possible in base stations
since they are not constrained by physical
size and power as much as in the mobile Rx
makes reverse link ACI less of a concern than
forward link ACI
also true because of power control (discussed
below)
choice of modulation schemes
different modulation schemes provide less or
more energy outside their passband.

Adjacent Channel Interference
Power Control
technique to minimize ACI
base station & MSC constantly monitor mobile
received signal strength
mobile Tx power varied (controlled) so that
smallest Tx power necessary for a quality
reverse link signal is used (lower power for
the closer the mobile is to the base station)
also helps battery life on mobile
Adjacent Channel Interference
dramatically improves adjacent
channel S / I ratio, since mobiles in
other cells only transmit at high enough
power as transmitter controls (not at
full power)
most beneficial for ACI on reverse link
will see later that this is especially
important for CDMA systems

Adjacent Channel Interference
Method To Reduce Co-channel Interference
Possible Solutions?
1) Increase base station Tx power to improve
radio signal reception? __
this will also increase interference from
co-channel cells by the same amount
no net improvement
2) Separate co-channel cells by some
minimum distance to provide sufficient
isolation from propagation of radio signals?
if all cell sizes, transmit powers, and
coverage patterns same co-channel
interference is independent of Tx power

co-channel interference depends on:
R : cell radius
D : distance to base station of nearest co-channel cell
if D / R then spatial separation relative to
cell coverage area
improved isolation from co-channel RF energy
Q = D / R : co-channel reuse ratio
hexagonal cells Q = D/R =


N
R
D
Q 3 = =
3N
D
R
R
R
Method To Reduce Co-channel Interference
CCI Reduction: Cell Sectoring
Shown 120 sectored
antennas
Channel per cell are
divided among 3 sectors
CCI decreased. Sector 0
gets interference from
sectors 4, 5 and 6 only
60 degrees sectored also
possible



0
2
3
4
1
5
6
82
CCI Reduction: Beam Tilting
By tilting down the antenna beam, the power
outside the cell, causing CCI reduces
83
CCI Reduction: Channel
Assignment
Fixed Channel Assignment
Cell allocated predetermined set of channels
Any call within the cell must use one of the
unused channels assigned to cell
If all channels used, call is blocked
Channel Borrowing
If all channels are used in a cell has, it can,
temporarily, borrow from neighboring cells
MSC supervises borrowing
Should not cause high CCI to other cell
84
CCI Reduction: Channel Assignment
Dynamic Channel Assignment
Channels not permanently assigned to cells
BSC requests channel from MSC when call made
MSC allocates channel to call based on algorithm that
takes into account
Probability of future blocking within cell
Frequency of use of candidate channel
Reuse distance of channel
MSC assigns channel that will not interfere with existing
calls
Reduces probability of blocking &Increases channel
utilization
85
CCI Reduction: Cell splitting
If higher capacity is needed in a spot, we need to go,
locally, to smaller cluster size N
Each cell can be split into multiple microcells with own BS
Rescaling system to smaller cell size
Transmit power of BS reduced to obtain smaller coverage
area than original BS
Enables more spatial reuse greater system capacity
Cell splitting preserves original frequency reuse plan
Cell splitting causes increased handoff
Can use umbrella cells where fast-moving mobiles
covered by original cell and slower mobiles covered by
microcells
CCI Reduction: Cell Splitting Example
F D
B
G C
F
E
D
G
C
F
E
D
B E
B
G
C
D
E
F
G
B
C
A
F D
B
G C
F
E
D
G
C
F
E
D
B E
B
G
C
A
CCI Reduction: Cell Splitting
Example...
88
CCI Reduction: Frequency Reuse
Design cells to be non-overlapping and cover entire
region
Cells depicted as hexagons
Conceptual design allowing easy analysis of
system
Close to circular shape achieved by
omnidirectional antennas
Footprint: actual radio coverage of a cell
Determined from field measurements or
propagation prediction models
Amorphous in nature
Use hexagon to approximate shape
CCI Reduction: Frequency Reuse
Due to Co-channel Interference (CCI),
cannot use same frequency in adjacent
cell
Cells that use same frequencies must be
separated by distances large enough to
keep interference levels low
Frequencies assigned to different cells
using frequency reuse plan
Adjacent cells assigned different
frequencies to avoid interference or
crosstalk
90
CCI Reduction: Frequency Reuse
Objective is to reuse frequency in nearby
cells
10 to 50 frequencies assigned to each cell
Transmission power controlled to limit
power at that frequency escaping to
adjacent cells
The issue is to determine how many cells
must intervene between two cells using
the same frequency

91
Frequency Reuse
Cells with same letter use the same set of
frequency channels
Using hexagonal cells, BS located at center of
cell
MS at edge of cell receives weak signal from
BS, i.e., low Carrier to Interference ratio (C/I)

92
A
F
E
D
B
G C
A
F
E
D
B
G C
A
F
E
D
B
G C
CCI Reduction: Frequency Reuse
Suppose system has S total channels & k channels
per cell (k < S)
Channels divided among N cells into disjoint
groups, S = kN, N cells which use all S channels called
cluster (N = cluster size, typically 4, 7, 12)
Clusters replicated in system
Typically cluster size N = i
2
+ ij + j
2
N=7 i=2, j=1
N=3 i=1, j=1
Move i cells in any direction
Turn 60
o
CCW
Move j cells in this direction

93
CCI Reduction: Frequency Reuse
A
F
E
D
B
G C
A
F
E
D
B
G C
N = 7
i=2, j=1
A
B
C
B
B
C C
C
B
B
A
C
A
A A
N = 3
i=1, j=1
Frequency Reuse Pattern
2
3
1
N=3
1
2
4
3
4
1
3
6
5
2 7
N=4
N=7
1
1
1
1
N=1
Cell Geometry
N q
R
D
3 = =
D
R
R
R
Causes of interference
another mobile in the same cell
a call in progress in the neighboring
cell
other base stations operating in the
same frequency band
Non cellular system leaks energy
into the cellular frequency band
97